The Great Los Angeles Earthquake Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Great Los Angeles Earthquake - Essay Example enter of the earthquake was around twenty five (25) miles north of Los Angeles and caused considerable damage to the city in terms of life and property of the citizens of Los Angeles. The movie appears to center greatly upon the fact that city officials chose to ignore the warnings that were given by seismologist Dr. Clark Winslow. The movie chooses to stress greatly upon the fact that city officials gave more importance to the calm of the city than to the very life of the city itself. For instance, one of the few areas where the movie reaches its climax is when the city officials finally realize that Dr. Clark Winslow’s warnings were legitimate and begin to advise the citizens of Los Angeles to begin taking immediate precautionary measures. However, as the movie shows, the time to take precautionary measures has passed and the earthquake strikes. The movie stands greatly upon this political intervention and ignorance of the city officials and chooses to use this as the main theme and plot. The movie also establishes itself upon the fact that while Dr. Clark Winslow’s warning was based on a fault line that was located around the Los Angeles area, th e tremors that set the city officials on alert were those that came from a lesser well known fault line near the city. However, leaving behind the main plot, the movie focuses on a number of subplots based upon a number of events that happened to the real people who got trapped in the earthquake and struggled to survive. About twenty thousand (20,000) lives were lost because of The Big One. The movie follows the lives of a few of these people and shows them as they try to resist the damage of the earthquake from trapping them and taking their lives. There is although a certain element of exaggeration in the movie. It appears that the creators of the movie chose to go along with the idea of creating the subplots for the movie out of the people who suffered series of events that could be commercially viable for the

Effective team performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Effective team performance - Essay Example In this document, this issue will be looked at critically to see how the teams in Electron were used in the recruitment process and the application of this in other organisations. This case study showed that a good team formation can be useful in creating a good platform for recruitment. Recruitment is changing, and it is getting increasingly necessary for organisations to be able to get talent and develop talents. This document will indicate, through a closer look at the facts in the case study, how an organisation can use teams in the organisation to have a proper and productive recruitment. It also indicates how these teams can be used in getting the right talents and also in maintaining the best talent and making sure that the wrong employees are kicked out of the organisation when and if necessary. 3 Team synergy A crucial effect of teams is actually synergy where each team members bring in their best and use it to improve the team in terms of productivity and efficiency (Select Knowledge Limited 2011). This document will look at this with regard to how the team members in Electron contributed to the development of a more formidable workforce. According to Dyer 2013, team synergy is about making sure that every member in the team benefits from the strengths of others and that each of the individual weaknesses are covered by the other members. However, how this is achieved can be a challenge because there may be other inhibiting factors that may make it harder for a team to synergise. 4 Team is not a collection of people One of the most important theories about a team is a collection of people with common goals and who aid each other in achieving this goal (Belbin 2012). With regard to the Electron case study, this will be investigated to see how the teams in Electron worked together in order to achieve their goals together. 5 Introduction Teamwork is one of the most important performance tools. Being able to inspire teamwork in the organisation is one of t he most useful things that an organisation can do. Teamwork may be utilised as a tool to help the organisation to overcome numerous setbacks in the market. This can be exemplified in the Electron case study. The teamwork illustrated in the case study can be looked at using the different team theories. One thing that is the most striking about the teams in Electron is that they are able to work together to a stronger force in order to achieve their goals. 6 Concertive control One of the main issues that come out in the case study is the way the team have used concertive control in making sure that the teams remain functional. There exist various factors which may be attributed to this concertive control. One of them is the fact it becomes more effective than having a manager led team. According to Kelley 1992, concertive control can be seen as a way to help the teams to be able to have leadership that is not dependent on one person but rather where everyone, new or old has a say and can contribute to the leadership. This is very useful in motivating team members into contributing to the team. People are more likely to be effective and cooperative when get the attitude that they are in control of their environment rather than when they feel that they are controlled

Controversy Over Water Rights

Controversy Over Water Rights Water Rights: Over 200 Years of History and Still Controversial Water is essential to life, not only human life, but also the life of plants and agriculture. Water is also the essence of life, which means laws have to be made to â€Å"be fair† to everyone that needs water for their land and their agriculture. That is why the Colorado, along with most of the United States, has water rights and laws. Water and water rights have been an issue ever since the mid to late 1800s when â€Å"the water laws first originated during the California Gold Rush in 1848† (Waskom, et al.). The laws were then brought to Colorado during the gold rush of 1859, and put into the state constitution in 1876. It was named the Doctrine of Prior Appropriation or the Colorado Doctrine (Waskom, et al.). Ever since then, water has been fought over constantly and will be fought over until the end of times. It is a valuable source to our survival and also controversial. The history of water rights and water controversy dates all the back to the California Gold Rush during the mid 1800s. As farmers began to migrate in to the state of Colorado, they found a many sunny days and low humidity, and with the right amount of water, they could make crop production rise. However, the Census from 1910 says that Colorado only received about 12-15 inches of rain when farmers first started to arrive. 12-15 inches was not enough for sufficient farming so farmers had to find an alternative water source (qtd. in Penn and Zietz 25). As farmers began to migrate to Colorado, the amount of water needed for farms rose. In the Development of Water Right in Colorado: An Empirical Analysis, Penn and Zietz quote: Early irrigation works in the 1860s were often simple, consisting of a crude stream diversion and a short ditch. Soon, however, farmers discovered that they must combine to build and maintain expensive irritation works; these organized efforts were termed ‘irrigation enterprises’ by the Census Bureau. Between 1860 and 1880, nearly 1,600 new irritation enterprises came into existence. The number of irrigation enterprises more than doubled in the 1880s so that by 1890, 58.9 percent of all farms and 19.4 percent [sic] all land in farms were irrigated. By 1900, 71.3 percent of all farms in the state were irrigated. (26) Penn and Zietz speak of 3 distinct time periods that affected the history of water rights. The first period they speak about was from 1872 to the early 1890s where the majority of court cases were held to deal with upholding and refining the doctrine of prior appropriation. During the second period from the early 1890s to about 1904, courts saw many cases involving irrigation enterprises, which dealt with defining the rights of irrigation cooperatives and partnerships. During the third period, which began in 1905, courts saw many cases regarding storage reservoirs, water rights transfers, and changes in the point of diversion (Penn and Zietz, 26-27). The earliest important case according to Penn and Zietz was seen in 1872 when the Yunker v. Nichols case was seen in the Colorado Supreme Court. This case recognized the need for diverting water from the watercourse. Chief Justice Hallet came to the conclusion that: In a dry and thirsty land it is necessary to divert the water of streams from their natural channels, in order to obtain the fruits of the soil. The value and usefulness of agricultural lands, in this territory, depend o the supply of water for irrigation, and this can only be obtained by constructing artificial channels though which it may flow over adjacent land. (27) To this day, many cases go in and out of courts regarding water rights. It is an on going batter between farmers, states, and whoever else use rivers, streams, irrigation, reservoirs, etc. These cases will continue to roll through courts around the United States. However, without these water rights and laws, states along with farmers would go into riots. â€Å"Many of the developments in water rights in the rest of the Western United States derive in one war or another from the Colorado System† (Penn and Zietz 24). Colorado’s laws have impacted the surrounding states along with states that have adopted Colorado’s ways. Colorado has been the stepping-stone for water rights throughout history and will continue to be. Court cases of water rights are seen around the state of Colorado; however, there is a case that hits close to home in Northeastern Colorado. A small town farmer from the area of Holyoke and near the Nebraska border was involved in a case that changed water rights forever. The Sporhase v. Nebraska case of 1982 was a very controversial case that was taken from a small town all the way to the Supreme Court. Sporhase had land in both Nebraska and Colorado because he lived in the Northeastern corner of the state. Sporhase applied to the Colorado Ground Water Commission to appropriate water to irrigate his land in Colorado from the aquifer that was located beneath the ground. Sporhase was rejected of this application and then decided to invest large sums of money into putting an underground pipeline system beneath his ground to extract water from a well that was across the border in Nebraska. The Department of Water Recourses received a complaint about Sporhase extracting water from Nebra ska and using on Colorado land, which was said to be a violation of the Nebraska statute. Nebraska later sued Sporhase â€Å"to enjoin him from irrigating the Colorado land from his Nebraska well† (Green 924). â€Å"A Nebraska statute required the permission of the Director of Water Resources before groundwater could be transferred across enemy lines.† (Garrett 715-716). During the case, the Supreme Court had to solve an issue that dealt with whether water should be classified as an article of commerce, which would be subject to Congressional Regulation like other natural resources (Green 927). â€Å"An article of commerce is an article (or a resource in this case) that can be offered for sale† (Article of Commerce). Nebraska brought forward three main points that they hoped would sway the decision of the jury. Nebraska first attempted to distinguish water from other natural resources by saying the state makes saving water their top priority because water is the essence of survival for their citizens. In their second argument, Nebraska argued that its water statute was â€Å"a legitimate exercise of the state’s police power to protect the health of its citizens and conserve natural resources.† The third argument, Nebraska argued that congress had given them permission to engage in impermissible groundwater regulation (Green 928-929). In defense, Sporhase used the City of Altus v. Carr case as an example and argument to help his side of the present case. This case â€Å"invalidated a Texas statute that prohibited interstate exportation of groundwater without prior approval of the Texas legislature on the grounds that such restrictions violated the commerce clause† (927). This case was relevant to Sporhase because, in Texas, like Nebraska, landowners do not have a comparable right because water is not privately owned. In the end, the Supreme Court decided in a 7-2 decision, that water is an article of commerce and Sporha se was allowed to keep pumping water from his Nebraska well to his Colorado field (927-930). The decision of this court case set the tone for future court cases that had to do with water because of the decision of water being an article of commerce. When laws and rights are made, they have to be followed. Water rights go along the same lines and this was seen in 2011 when Bonny Reservoir in Yuma County had to be drained to repay Kansas and Nebraska for water that Colorado had used. This came from a 1942 agreement between the three states that claimed the three states had to share water. Colorado had to give up 4 billion gallons of water in order to repay the debt that Kansas claimed Colorado owed them due to the Republican River Compact. â€Å"The compact collected dust for years until Kansas water officials noticed they were not getting enough water from Nebraskas and Colorados portion of the river† (Bonny Reservoir). Colorado looked for many alternatives rather than draining Bonny Reservoir, but all seemed too expensive. The reservoir was drained during Labor Day weekend of 2011, and pushed up the Republican River towards the Kansas-Colorado Border in order to repay the debt to Nebraska and Kansas under the Republican R iver Compact (Bonny Reservoir). Water rights are seen throughout the United States and very much so in the western part of the United States. Water rights come up very often in our local news in Northeastern Colorado along with Colorado. With the increase in technology and agriculture, disputes over water will continue and be on the rise during the future. There will never be an end to this madness because no one will ever be able to get a fair or equal amount as the next person. As water becomes scarcer, the disputes will become more intense and farmers and ranchers will need to find alternatives. Until then, water rights will be taken to courts all across the country to try and make these disputes as fair as possible. Work Cited Article of Commerce. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, n.d. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. http://dictionary.reference.com/>. Bonny Reservoir Could Be Drained Because of Water Deal with Nebraska, Kansas. The Denver Post. The Denver Post, 27 Aug. 2011. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. http://www.denverpost.com/ci_18771111 Garrett, J.S. Federal Intervention in Groundwater Regulation: Sporhase v. Nebraska Ex Rel. Douglas, 18 Tulsa L.J. 713 (1982) Green, Mary A. Water Law- Sporhase v. Nebraska. Natural Resources Journal 23 (1983): 923-31. The University of New Mexico. The University of New Mexico. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. http://www.unm.edu Penn, David, and Joachin Zietz. The Development of Water Rights in Colorado: An Empirical Analysis. The American Economist 55.2 (2010): 24-35. EBSCOHOST. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/[emailprotected]5vid=5hid=4207>. Waskom, R., et al. Irrigation Ditches and Their Operation. Natural Resource Series (2011): n. pag. Colorado State University Extension. Colorado State University, Feb. 2011. Web. Feb. 2014. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/natres/06701.pdf>.

Creatine Essay -- essays research papers

Creatine Creatine is one of the primary things an athlete will do to put supplements into their body. These supplements range from protein shakes to illegal anabolic steroids. Some sports supplements are incredibly safe and effective, yet others work for a while and then fizzle out, while others still work well but do more damage than good in the long run. In the past athletes had to turn to such things as anabolic steroids or blood doping (the process of taking out blood and adding oxygen to it and putting it back into your body in order to increase a persons endurance). However, these procedures have many drawbacks. Mainly, they are illegal. An athlete may be suspended from playing their perspective sport for using them. They have many long terms and short term side effects. Many supplements are as simple as packaged energy and others require a strict exercise and eating regimen. I will explore sports supplements focusing on creatine and it's effect on the sport world. The first and most basic sports supplements are protein weight gainers. This normally comes in the form of powder and works best when mixed with milk. The main reason for taking extra protein is to gain weight and muscle mass. In today's athletics, whether it is high school, college, or professional, the athletes are getting bigger, stronger, and faster. Protein works the best when the athlete is on a strict work out regimen. Many sports supplements are a combination of herbs and proteins. A popular supplement of this sort is called "Heat." Heat has many different ingredients in it that allow the athlete to experience more energy by creating more heat. This allows the athletes' body to work more efficiently and therefore work faster, stronger, and longer. This is very important in the sports world because it is becoming harder and harder to compete at an unsupplemented level. Athletes want every advantage that he or she can receive. Now there is a substance that can give an athlete the edge that they desire. One of the most popular and effective sports supplements on the market today is Pure creatine monohydrate. Creatine was first introduced to the US in 1993 by a supplement company called Experimental and Applied Sciences. ... ... Another problem that people may see with creatine is the cost factor. A Creatine supply for a month will average close to forty-five dollars. With the cost of this and other supplements being so high, it seems that the higher class athletes would have an advantage, which causes many critics of creatine (or supplements in general) to deem it unfair. Their case is, athletes of one group should not be permitted to have an advantage over another due to something such as money. In conclusion, Creatine is and can be a very effective supplement for athletes, it doesn't help everyone. Depending on the person and the sport they are participating in creatine's effects can be either positive or negative. Though long term research on the effects of creatine have not been confirmed, as of now the only side effects are diarrhea, nausea, and weight gain. These are outweighed by the increased success that one may have in their strength and performance in sports. Creatine has a positive effect on sports as well as its negative effect, therefore each person should weigh the positive and negative, then make the decision for themselves.

How far does Austens writing in Volume I and Volume II of the novel? Essay

Austen’s writing is almost constantly persuading the reader that Elizabeth is the heroine of the novel; from the opening pages it is clear by Austen’s brave statement that the matrimonial prospects of the Bennet daughters will dominate the novel: ‘It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife’ yet the reader is still unaware which daughter it is. Since it cannot be Mary (described as a pedantic, book educated bore), nor Kitty or Lydia (both critically depicted by the narrator as flirtatious and idle girls) the reader is left to decide between Jane and Elizabeth. Austen at first hints that it may be Jane, with her perfect charm and character yet soon it is apparent that Austen prefers a less conventional heroine whose lack of extraordinary physical beauty makes her both an inspirational character and also a kind of girl with whom everyone can identify. Elizabeth is also admirable to the reader as she is independent of thought and stands up for herself, even to those far above her in social standing (Darcy, Lady Catherine) which Austen fully supports. Austen’s writing partly reveals this simply by the large amount of attention paid to the events that happen to Elizabeth, Elizabeth’s opinion about every event and the way in which the narrator seems to second all of Elizabeth’s opinions, mimicking Elizabeth’s language and style by Austen’s use of free indirect speech for example ‘it was impossible not to long to know’ when Elizabeth is curious about the strange greeting between Wickham and Darcy. This allows the reader to sympathize with Elizabeth and to understand Elizabeth’s feelings without her having to say them out loud. Austen’s writing style is also mimicked in Elizabeth’s tone (witty, intelligent and funny): ‘I believe, he is very much what he ever was’ when describing Darcy, hinting at Wickham’s false character. Another reason for which the reader may think of Elizabeth as the heroine is because the reader sees the unfolding plot and the other characters mostly from Elizabeth’s viewpoint for example when Miss Bingley is trying to win over Darcy’s affections: ‘Miss Bingley’s attention was quite as much engaged in watching Mr Darcy’s progress through his book’. This provides the reader the viewpoint from someone in the room, who is mocking Miss Bingley light-heartedly, likely to be Elizabeth. However, Austen’s writing may discourage the reader that Elizabeth is in fact the heroine when her faults are evident yet she has not accepted them yet, for example Elizabeth’s feeling of embarrassment about her own family and her impulsiveness and tendency to make assumptions of character too hastily. The reader may especially disapprove of Elizabeth in Chapter IX of Volume I, where Elizabeth is clearly deeply embarrassed by her mother’s untactful rudeness: ‘said Elizabeth, blushing for her mother’, yet does not notice her own rudeness: It does not necessarily follow that a deep, intricate character is more or less estimable than such a one as yours’. Yet another way in which Austen suggests that Elizabeth is the heroine, is by showing that Darcy is the hero, since both have a constant connection to each other, whether it is the hatred of the other, or the heated discussions between the two, or the uncontrollable affection to the other. One way which Austen shows us that Darcy is the hero is by agreeing with his statements: ‘I cannot boast of knowing more than half a dozen, in the whole range of my acquaintance, that are really accomplished’. Darcy is especially noticeable as the hero of the novel when the plot surrounds him more, after his proposal to Elizabeth. Darcy and Elizabeth also mirror each other in the way that both are intelligent and show opinions similar to Austen’s, and both overcome their own faults (Darcy: pride, Elizabeth: prejudice). It is this self-discovery and realization of faults that convinces us that Elizabeth is the heroine, as her character develops since her introduction with Darcy. It is the fact that Elizabeth realizes her faults,that makes it easy for a reader to relate to her. In conclusion, in my opinion Austen’s writing greatly persuades the reader that without a doubt, Elizabeth is the heroine of the novel, going through character development and self-realisation, aswell as Austen’s use of mimicking her own style in Elizabet’s tone and language.

Network Operating System Essay

A Network Operating System is an operating system that includes special functions for connecting computers and devices into a network. The term network operating system, however, is generally reserved for software that enhances a basic operating system by adding networking features. Network operating system implements protocol stacks as well as device drivers for networking hardware. This paper will identify the Domain Name Server (DNS), Web Server, Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS), and the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS). Domain Name Server (DNS)Domain Name Server, also known as DNS, is an Internet service that translates domain names into IP addresses. All addresses in the internet are bases on IP addresses. The job of the DNS is to translate the IP Addresses into domain names. DNS are very important but completely hidden from the internet. For example instead of typing 69.147.11.210 we can type www.yahoo.com and get the same result. The Domain Name Server (DNS) distributes the responsibility for assigning domain names and mapping them to IP networks by allowing an authoritative server for each domain to keep track of its own changes, avoiding the need for a central registrar to be continually consulted and updated. DNS is a database system that translates a fully qualified domain name into an IP address. If a DNS does not know how to translate a particular domain name it will asks another DNS until the correct IP address is returned. Web ServerA web server is a computer that delivers Web pages. Every Web server has an IP address and possibly a domain name. For example, if you enter the URL http://www.yahoo.com in your browser, this sends a request to the server whose domain name is yahoo.com/mail.html. The server then fetches the page named mail.html and sends it to your browser. Any computer can be turned into a Web server by installing server software and connecting the machine to the Internet. There are many Web server software applications, including public domain software from NCSA and Apache, and commercial packages from Microsoft, Netscape and others. Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS)WINS is a service run on Windows NT servers to provide Windows clients a way to find other Windows computers. WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service) resolves Windows network computer names (also known as NetBIOS names) to Internet IP addresses, allowing Windows computers on a network to easily find and communicate with each other. Using a WINS server is essential for any Windows client computer to work with other Windows computers over the Internet. In addition, using a WINS server is essential for any Windows client computer at Indiana University that intends to use Microsoft network resources. To use WINS services, you must insert into your TCP/IP networking configuration the IP address of the WINS servers you wish to use. Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS)One of Cisco’s strongest commitments in technology has been Internet Protocol (IP). Internet Protocol routing is the foundation for the internet. It is probably the most important technology in the past twenty years. Creating efficient use of network bandwidth by forwarding packets of data to the appropriate networks is what Internet Protocol routing is all about. The management team at Cisco is planning for the future with products like its Internetworking Operating System (IOS) software, which was created to provide the intelligence on the network, a basis for quality of service, and security on the internet. Services like Cisco’s IOS software help to drive the growth of the internet by creating new applications like real time trading, interactive support, and on demand media (Cisco Innovation & Technology News). Cisco IOS is a package of outing, switching, internetworking and telecommunications functions integrated with a multitasking operating system. Cisco IOS is the most common software used on most of Cisco routers and switches. Most Cisco products that run IOS also have one or more â€Å"feature sets† or â€Å"packages†, typically eight packages for Cisco routers and five packages for Cisco switches. One of the main characteristics of Cisco IOS is that it is command line interface (CLI). This style has been copied by other networking products. It provides a fixed set of multiple-word commands. The set of command available depends on the privilege level of each user. ConclusionNetwork Operating Systems are essential part for todayÂ’s network. This paper only covered some of these operating systems that are currently used and most of them are invisible to the regular user. Most users donÂ’t even know that they existed or how they work. References Webopedia retrieved November 19, 2007 from:http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/DNS.htmSearchnetworking.com retrieved November 19, 2007 from:http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214124,00.htmlAbout.com retrieved November 19, 2007 from:http://compnetworking.about.com/od/softwareapplicationstools/l/bldef_nos.htmIndiana University retrieved November 19, 2007 from:http://kb.iu.edu/data/adeo.htmlCisco retrieved November 19, 2007 from:http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/sw/iosswrel/ps1818/products_tech_note09186a008015083e.shtml andhttp://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/sw/iosswrel/ps1828/products_white_paper09186a008018305e.shtml#t14

How to Find the Inner and Outer Fences

How to Find the Inner and Outer Fences One feature of a data set that is important to determine is if it contains any outliers. Outliers are intuitively thought of as values in our set of data that differ greatly from a majority of the rest of the data. Of course, this understanding of outliers is ambiguous. To be considered as an outlier, how much should the value deviate from the rest of the data? Is what one researcher calls an outlier going to match with another’s? In order to provide some consistency and a quantitative measure for the determination of outliers, we use inner and outer fences. To find the inner and outer fences of a set of data, we first need a few other descriptive statistics. We will begin by calculating quartiles. This will lead to the interquartile range. Finally, with these calculations behind us, we will be able to determine the inner and outer fences. Quartiles The first and third quartiles are part of the five number summary of any set of quantitative data. We begin by finding the median or the midway point of the data after all of the values are listed in ascending order. The values less than the median corresponding to roughly half of the data. We find the median of this half of the data set, and this is the first quartile. In a similar way, we now consider the upper half of the data set. If we find the median for this half of the data, then we have the third quartiles. These quartiles get their name from the fact that they split the data set into four equal sized portions, or quarters. So in other words, roughly 25% of all of the data values are less than the first quartile. In a similar way, approximately 75% of the data values are less than the third quartile. Interquartile Range We next need to find the interquartile range (IQR). This is easier to calculate than the first quartile q1 and the third quartile q3. All that we need to do is to take the difference of these two quartiles. This gives us the formula: IQR Q3 - Q1 The IQR tells us how spread out the middle half of our data set is. Find the Inner Fences We can now find the inner fences. We start with the IQR and multiply this number by 1.5. We then subtract this number from the first quartile. We also add this number to the third quartile. These two numbers form our inner fence. Find the Outer Fences For the outer fences, we start with the IQR and multiply this number by 3. We then subtract this number from the first quartile and add it to the third quartile. These two numbers are our outer fences. Detecting Outliers The detection of outliers now becomes as easy as determining where the data values lie in reference to our inner and outer fences. If a single data value is more extreme than either of our outer fences, then this is an outlier and is sometimes referred to as a strong outlier. If our data value is between a corresponding inner and outer fence, then this value is a suspected outlier or a mild outlier. We will see how this works with the example below. Example Suppose that we have calculated the first and third quartile of our data, and have found these values to the 50 and 60, respectively. The interquartile range IQR 60 – 50 10. Next, we see that 1.5 x IQR 15. This means that the inner fences are at 50 – 15 35 and 60 15 75. This is 1.5 x IQR less than the first quartile, and more than the third quartile. We now calculate 3 x IQR and see that this is 3 x 10 30. The outer fences are 3 x IQR more extreme that the first and third quartiles. This means that the outer fences are 50 - 30 20 and 60 30 90. Any data values that are less than 20 or greater than 90, are considered outliers. Any data values that are between 29 and 35 or between 75 and 90 are suspected outliers.

Instagram as Tool for Social Science Research

Instagram as Tool for Social Science Research In the recent decades, advancements in technologies have dramatically changed the research process across all disciplines. Some of these innovations have revolutionized research with titanic and far-reaching implications. The internet, for instance, has made it easy to access information and communicate across long distances. Some of these innovations are slightly less revolutionary but with tremendous impacts on research.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Instagram as Tool for Social Science Research specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Online social media platforms are examples of modest innovations whose impact on research-related tasks can only be felt cumulatively through daily interactions. With a base of 90 million active users monthly and over 40 million photos posted each day, Instagram is a powerful tool for social science research (Titlow, 2013). The innovation uses hash tags to allow users share similar informa tion. A researcher can visit those hash tags to get vivid graphical results on a research topic. This paper will demonstrate that despite its shortcomings as a source of social problems, Instagram is a powerful research tool on virtually all social sciences disciplines. Kevin Systrom and Michel Krieger, a Brazilian, developed Instagram in the beginning of 2010 (How did it Impact Society? –Instagram, n.d., par 3).The innovation got a financial boast from venture fund investment in March 2010. One year later, Instagram discovered hash tag, afeature that allows users to share and discover similar information and photos. Like-minded Instagrammers create specific hash tags to help them discover each other. Instagram became very popular and hit over million users in 2010. With invention of the hash tag feature, this number rose to 10 million in 2011. By August 2012, the innovation had over 100 million photos uploaded on its service. This number surpassed one billion in 2012. Each s econd, Instagram receives fifty-eightphotos and one new user on its service. Renowned personalities and celebrities have created Instagram profiles. This allows them to share photos and videos with their followers and fans. The innovation, though modest, has exceedingly many users on its platform. It is in recognition of the growth that Times listed it as the Best Android Application for 2013. Instagram has gigantic impacts on research, some positive and others negative. To start with, the innovation provides a platform for expression of opinions through photos. Images are very powerful in sharing opinion especially in a world saturated with text. Instagram users post captivating images on their profiles. It is said that a picture is worth a thousand words (Prives, n.d., par 4).Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Social activists, opinion shapers, and commentators p ost photographs that capture issues affecting their worlds. It is thus easy for a researcher to discover people’s opinions on different aspects of life. It is also a powerful tool for social and political mobilization. In the aftermath of a devastating earthquake in Indonesia, people used Instagram photographs to highlight the humanitarian crisis in the country. Through these images, it was possible to appeal to people’s emotions and mobilize help. A researcher can therefore find Instagram extremely useful in such areas.  Instagram allows users to interact with people they would never have contacted before. By sharing pictures, people miles away stay connected. Through hash tags, like-minded people interact with one another as they share ideas, jokes, and exchange pictures. The more people share and interact, the more societies build social and political ties. A social researcher interested in studying the influence of celebrities on teenagers can use Instagram. A ph oto of a celebrity dressed in a certain fashion can attract many young people to dress in the same way and share their photos. Another benefit of Instagram as a research tool is the ease in access to vast amounts of information. The innovation has made it possible to access readily available resources at a click of a mouse. Researchers do not have to read volumes of newspaper or sit down for hours watching or listening to news. Instead, they can search for a relevant hash tag and get all relevant information. For instance, a search on the â€Å"#fiscalcliff† hash tag generates in excess of five thousand pictures. A search on the hash tag â€Å"#new† has more than three hundred thousand images. Instagram as a tool for research in social sciences is therefore convenient, fast, and highly resourceful. In spite of being resourceful and convenient as a research tool, Instagram has several negative consequences on users. To start with, the innovation has led to emergence of narcissistic stars of social media platform. Rinosa (2013)reports that the hash tag â€Å"#me† is the third in popularity in Instagram. Through this hash tag, young people share explicit self-images. Additionally, young users upload too much personal details on this platform. They spend most of their time on cellphones sharing where they visit, what they eat, among other details. This leads to social awkwardness as young people are detached from the real world. It is impossible to regulate what people share on Instagram. The platform therefore contributes to erosion of moral fabric and cyber bullying.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Instagram as Tool for Social Science Research specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Personally, I have been an Instagrammer since 2010. I signed up to the invention under influence from friends when I was in high school. The invention has had many effects on my personal life and as a c ollege student. At a personal level, I interact with friends and share photos. I also get information on what is happening around the globe. It had never occurred to me that Instagram is a powerful research tool until I ran out of information while explaining something to friends. We decided to search for the information on a particular hash tag on Instagram. We were overwhelmed by the amount of readily available information on the hash tag. We got many images that helped us to understand our topic better. Since then, I realized the truism in the statement that a picture is worth more than a thousand words. Whenever I need information on something, I simply search for the particular hash tag. I did the same during the Halloween and the photos that came up inundated me. In conclusion, technology will play a big role in future research. Instagram, for instance, has plans to have a video-sharing feature on its service. By using this feature, it will be possible to share and watch video s online. For researchers, this is an opportunity for clear evidence in the course of research. With the recent acquisition by Facebook Inc., Instagram has obtained financial muzzle to develop more features (Titlow, 2013). Instagram has several shortcomings including social awkwardness and rise of narcissistic online stars. However, this does not negate the invention’s power as a social science tool. With ninety million monthly users and an even higher photo sharing capability, researchers cannot ignore this vital tool. Rather thanincur high expenditure on other tools, researchers can exploit the convenience offered by Instagram as research tool in social science subjects. References How did it Impact Society? Instagram. (n.d.). Web.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Prives, G. (n.d.). Instagram and its Impact on the World of Photography. Digital Photography School Instagram and its Impact on the World of Photography Comments. Web. Rinosa, M. (2013). 4 Ways Instagram Has Redefined Teen Culture. Web. Titlow, J. (2013). #Me: Instagram Narcissism And The Scourge Of The  Selfie. Web.

British Petroleum History - Smart Custom Writing Samples

British Petroleum History - Smart Custom Writing Is Democracy The best Form of Government For All PeopleDemocracy is a widely acknowledged form of political government under which the power to govern is sourced from the people either by a conducting a direct referendum or through an election of various representatives. In the 5th century BC, the Greeks coined this system of government that vests all power to decide as to who shall rule squarely on the people. This system chiefly asserts on equality and freedom as its mainstream virtues. Therefore, citizens are viewed as having equal access to power and deemed as equal before the law. Therefore, every man is entitled to one vote with an equal weight. These rights and liberties practiced by the citizens within such a state are secured by a constitution. Although this system of government implies multiple freedoms to its citizens, it can end up failing and becoming cumbersome to the subjects if proper checks and balances are not put in place to constantly keep the leaders in track. Th erefore, an in-depth analysis of democracy has been carried out herein by evaluating the pros and cons of this system. (Strong, 1998) There are numerous merits as to why a democracy should be the system of choice in governance. First, smooth transitory changes can take place in government without violence. This is enabled through free and fair elections whereby the citizens determine the ruling authority by simple majority. Secondly, democracy prevents monopoly of any one ruling authority. This is since the incumbent government has to compete with other parties and personalities after expiration of its term. This therefore ensures that the ruling authority works for the people and towards their needs or leave office due to the failure to be re-elected. Thirdly, a democracy serves as motivational factor to the people. This is since the government is obligated towards its citizens. By carrying out of all its duties and goals set which are supported by the majority, the people feel appreciative and encouraged to work even harder towards attaining a better economic status. Finally, a democratic government makes the citizens have a feeling of participation and ‘ownership.’ They feel that the government has been legally elected by them and that it is theirs. They are able to express their freedom of choice and opinion through the ballot box or voting process. This has the capacity of enhancing nationalism. (Kukathas, 2004) Despite all these merits, there are various demerits and criticisms that have been put forward against democracies. These have been based on the irrational voters who are widely perceived that they are poorly informed on political, social and economic issues. First, democracies have been deemed to be politically unstable. Though the government is elected in by the majority, during its term, opponents and the media frequently challenge the ruling authority which could lead to a sudden change in the political support. This goes a long way in discouraging foreign investment and economic growth.   (Zorach, 2010) Secondly, democracies have been characterized by short terms. This is especially the case after elections and there is no clear winner leading to formation of coalitions due to the fact that democracies are not after the ideological match but the support of the majority. Any imbalance in the treatment of principal partners may lead to withdrawal from the coalition hence the collapse of the government leading to another election. Thirdly, the democratic governments are slow in responding to key issues in the society. This is because decisions are carried out through consensus rather than a unilateral system that would otherwise speed up decision making. Finally, governments elected into power during elections have been accused severally of vote buying and rigging. This is a way of appealing and influencing voters to vote for one particular party who might not be the most appropriate in ruling. A form of vote buying is the pork barrel whereby some political sectors are awarded specific special benefits whose costs are spread to all taxpayers. (Ratchasima, 2007) Despite multiple criticisms, democracies remain the most popular governments in the world. This is since they allow the citizens to openly express their views which are a vital need among humanity. Therefore, democratic governments can be viewed as the best form of governments.    References Kukathas, G. F. (2004). Handbook of Political Theory. Sage. Ratchasima, N. (2007, November 25). Democracy, and vote buying, returning to Thailand. The New York Times . Strong, M. H. (1998). Public Space and Democracy. University of Minnesota Press. Zorach, A. (2010, September 12). Democracy. Retrieved November 19, 2010

Advantages and disadvantages of private labels Essay

Advantages and disadvantages of private labels - Essay Example A private label may be defined as a label that is unique to a specific retailer. According to Weitz's definition, "Private-label brands, also called store brands, are products developed by a retailer and available for sale only from that retailer (2004)." There are many categories of private labels such as, store brands, store sub-brands, umbrella branding, individual brands and exclusive brands.In order to fully discuss private labels, an original company, Macy's, has been used as an example in this essay. I would like to propose several ideas related to private labels that can help improve Macy's profitability.Macy's was founded by Mr. Rowland Hussey Macy in 1851 and established on Broadway in New York City. In 1896 the store was acquired by Mr. Isidor Strauss and underwent a large expansion during the 1920's and 30's http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macy's).Today, it is perhaps as well known for its annual Thanksgiving Day Parade, as its chain of large American department stores. Its flagship store is located in New York City, and currently holds the record for largest department store building.R.H. Macy & Co. merged with Federated Department Stores on 19th December, 1994. Federated merged its Abraham & Straus/Jordan Marsh division with "Macy's East". Federated acquired Woodward & Lothrop/John Wannamaker in 1995. In 1996 Federated purchased and dissolved Broadway Stores and incorporated it into Macy's West. The year 2001 saw the acquisition of the Liberty House chain which had departments and stores in Hawaii and Guam. It was converted into Macy's West. Bon-Macy's (Pacific Northwest) and Burdines-Macy's (Florida) were soon named as Macy's Northwest and Macy's Florida respectively. And Macy's Central Division included the Memphis and Atlanta Macy's became a part of Macy's central division. In 2005, Macy's acquired May Department stores and retained its brand name to be sold at the Macy's store. Thus, May became a private brand for Macy's. This was an important merger for Macy's since Famous-Barr, Filene's, Foley's, Hecht's, The Jones Store, Kaufmann's, L.S. Ayres, Meier & Frank, Robinsons-May, and Strawbridge's were all included in this acquisition. Later the same year Macy's announced that Marshall Field's would be acquired by Macy's and would become the company's North Division. Federated Department Stores has thus successfully eliminated much of its competition by buying them out and converting them to the Macy's nameplate. By 9th September 2006, Macy's will have approximately 850 stores in United States(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macy's) . The CEO and Chairman of the store is Terry J. Lundgren and the CFO is Karen M. Hoguet. The vice president of Corporate Communications and External Affairs is James A. Sluzewski (http://www.hoover.com). Macy's has seven divisions, the names of which are provided below; Macy's East Macy's Florida Macy's Midwest Macy's North Macy's Northwest Macy's South Macy's West The top competitors for Macy's are Dillards, Inc (DDS), J.C. Penny Corporation and Saks Incorporated (SKS). The company has a number of subsidiaries and affiliates; namely After Hours Formalwear, Bloomingdale's, Inc., David's Bridal, Inc., and the various regional divisions of Macy's. The company had 232,000 employees in the year 2006 and had a growth rate of 43.30% and (http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/12/12493.html). The annual revenue of the store is 2.5 billion U.S. dollars (http://www.fashioncareerexpo.com/show_co_profile_and_jobs.cfmemployer_id=87&show_id=11). Historically, private labels were inexpensive copies of original designer clothes, often a season or two behind runway fashion. In addition, most of the private labels had a homely feeling to them. However, this is not the case anymore. Trends have drastically changed in the past few years. Whereas private labels were once sold at the back section of departmental stores,

Video Business Case Report on acQuire Technology Solutions - Case 2 Study

Video Business Report on acQuire Technology Solutions - 2 - Case Study Example The paper provides the best alternative that the organization might adopt in order to deal with a situation of weak financial position in future. It is important for the organization to maintain a good customer relationship and upgrade itself with the technological developments taking place in the international market. The most important decision for the concerned organization is that of following a strategy of combining its pricing and marketing strategies in order to improve financial position of the company. The strategy has been recommended with the aim of helping the company to increase its total revenue and also its share in the world market. Introduction The major causes of the financial crisis are manipulations of the financial statements of companies, deficiencies in risk management, high leverage, lack of secured lending in the derivatives market and ineffective management (Bernanke 2010; Gramley 2013). All these led to the development of weak crisis-management capabilities by the companies (Friedman 2011, 98). As a result of the crisis, most of the open economies in the world have been the victims of recession and the companies operating multinationally are struggling to fight the effects of recession. This paper presents a report on a particular issue currently faced by a company named ‘acQuire Technology Solutions’. ... The outcome of this analysis would be useful in developing the decision criteria for the company and identify the alternatives that would be implemented while dealing with the issue currently faced by the company. Issues The world has recently emerged from the turbulent financial crisis and is still fighting to get rid of the after effects of the phenomenon. The concern shown by the CEO of acQuire Technology Solutions, Warren Cook, is that there is distinct possibility of recurrence of the 2008 crisis. This situation would be detrimental for the company and place it in a position of huge loss (Cook 2013a). In this context, the prime issue identified by the company is the development of strong strategy that would help the company deal with the current situation and emerge with success. Causes and importance of the issue The issue identified in the above section is important for acQuire since it is associated with long term sustainability of the company. According to the CEO, the long term performance of the company would be reflected in the way, the management of the organization deals with their responsibility towards their employees and treats their employees at present (Cook 2013b). acQuire Technology Solutions nurtures the objective of providing a long and cherished career to its employees. Maintaining the organization in such a way that it would be able to provide secure career to its staffs is one of the foremost concern for the firm. Decision Criteria Analysis Situational Risk Assessment acQuire Technology Solutions is a privately owned organization and it must make the comparison between risk and reward of any particular decision. The alternatives recommendations that are being

Effects of Drugs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Effects of Drugs - Essay Example This paper will assess the influence of drugs one’s family, career and life. As mentioned above, drugs are addictive meaning an individual becomes dependent on the substance and neglects his or her responsibilities in order to satisfy his addiction. Drugs have side effects after use as they imitate or inhibit the action of neurotransmitters which makes them stimulants or depressors (Carlson, 12). In addition, drugs have a toxic effect on the neurons which reduces the mental capabilities of an individual. Therefore, the diminished neuronal function will adversely affect an individual’s cognition making him or her incompetent at the workplace. Furthermore, the patient is likely to experience changes in his personality and regular mood swings which affect his relation to his colleagues. Therefore, drugs make an individual incapable of performing his professional obligations and he or she is unlikely to keep a job. This also explains why the majority of drug users are unemployed. The family of drug user is likely to be affected the most by this habit. This is because the family knows the real personality of an individual on drugs and they are tormented by watching the way drugs metamorphose his or her behavior and character. Therefore, drug use has a severe psychological impact on the family of a drug user. If the individual is the breadwinner, the family will also be affected financially as he will be unable to provide the financial resources necessary for satisfying basic needs (Swain et al. 327-333). Drug users often use the majority of their money on drugs as these are expensive and if they do not use these drugs they begin to experience withdrawal symptoms which are very difficult to resolve. According to sociological studies, drug users are also more likely to be abusive meaning the family can also be subjected to violent attacks from the user. In summation, the life of a drug user is very complicated and he or she is often depressed due to the extremes

The Role of Formal Devices in the Poetry of Marianne Moore Essay

The Role of Formal Devices in the Poetry of Marianne Moore - Essay Example She was not merely satisfied with examination issues that other artists were. She collected inspiration from sketches, drawings, sculpture and photographs. She found a wealth of creative energy in normal American life, industry, and the natural varied landscape found in United States. Moore also explore gender and equality issues, which were both risky and subjected her to criticism. Her passion for creating and relating striking visual images is demonstrated in all of her poetry. Moore approach also utilized classical rigid structure. She would create a poem that visually looked like free verse. However, the internal rhyme scheme revealed rigid structure and attention to detail. "Poetry" by Moore references her dislike for critics because of their treatment for her as a young poet. She makes fun of them in the poem. She comments that critics are unnatural creates like the swan intentional stops itself from holding back what comes down the stream. The critic becomes irritated when he reads her words, like a horse that feels a flea"; like him-like "all of us"-the swan does "not admire what / [it] cannot understand," and wants nothing to do with what the poet has to offer. This poem is obviously personal and regardless of Moore choice of formal devices, the poetry is not contrived and related unresolved emotions over rejection and insult (Slatin 15). "The Steeple-Jack" by

Plastic Waste Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plastic Waste - Research Paper Example Plastics have only been in circulation in the last 100 years, but its harmful effect on the health and lives of people and marine life is increasingly becoming severe. Globally, it is estimated that more than 500 billion of plastic bags are consumed every year. Currently, in the United States alone, Americans are throwing 100 billion plastic bags every year which is roughly equivalent to 12 million gallons of oil as plastic are made from carbon drawn from petroleum (Mcnamee). Moreover, it is estimated that more than 350 tons of plastic waste are disposed directly into the sea world wide.A single plastic bag takes more than a hundred years before it breaks down. It is durable and very convenient to use and seemingly very harmless. Ironically, the single plastic bag, which was use to put on the classy shoe or bag that we purchase on the mall can cause the lives of several animals. Can we imagine how much damage the billion of plastic bags and other plastic waste can do to marine lives and to our own health? Plastic Waste as Threat to Marine lifeIn 1997 during a Transpacific Yacht Race, between California and Hawaii, Captain Charles Moore accidentally discovered what is now known as the TRASH VORTEX or the Great Pacific Garbage Patch in the Pacific Ocean. The trash vortex is approximately twice the size of Texas and four times the size of Germany in Pacific Ocean which is filled with various floating plastic waste from old toys, golf balls, kayaks, plastic bottles and a lot more. which will not be able to decay in our lifetime. Besides to the floating trash vortex, it is assumed that 70% of the plastic waste sinks into sea bottom. According to Greenpeace, approximately 110 pieces of plastic waste were to be found per square kilometer at the sea bottom. It is calculated that a total of 600,000 tons of plastic waste are found at the bottom of the North Sea alone (Greenpeace). Plastic bags entangle birds which eventually strangled them death as they are unable to free themselves. Sea animals and other marine mammals have mistakenly eaten plastic, which causes their eventual death. According to a study conducted by marine biologist at the University of Kiel in Germany, 93% of the 180 dead birds which has been collected along the German shoreline, has been found to have plastic waste inside their stomachs (Altnau).In Australia, a crocodile named Whitey, which was part of a government wildlife tracking program was found dead and upon autopsy was

Community week three Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Community week three - Essay Example The authors also outline the importance and how to carry out public health surveillance, an effort that Cleveland clinic has taken up since it started. The clinic gives health talks on disease prevention, management, and treatment. Secondly, the clinic offers management services for both acute and chronic diseases. To improve accessibility, Global Patient Services awareness should be done, as people are not aware of the seamless referral resource, which help to access care providers. Since the clinic is a nonprofit institution that is publicly financed, it should then consider the entire community’s needs in order to promote affordability (Nies and McEwen, 2011). Its availability can be promoted through coming up with more centers to serve the growing population. The clinic is gaining more acceptability with the ranking it acquires in the health field because of competency in health care provision. However this can further be improved through reconsidering their charges which is a big barrier to accessing their services The growing demand for children and adolescent health care has necessitated improved technical expertise among the school nurses. Likewise, the nurses’ professional roles have increased. Today’s school nursing is not only about bandaging alone. A challenge comes in when this nurse is expected to handle a student who is managed by different health care providers for a certain condition. The nurse will therefore require the knowledge, skills, and equipments to provide quality care to this student while in school. There is quite a wide range of schoolchildren and teenage health problems that has called for the school nurse to be conversant with numerous technologies and protocols and Familiarize himself with variety of new drugs available for specific condition (Louis and Elsevier, 2009). There are different determinants to which health problem is prevalent to children and adolescents (Nies and McEwen, 2011).

Plastic Waste Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Plastic Waste - Research Paper Example Plastics have only been in circulation in the last 100 years, but its harmful effect on the health and lives of people and marine life is increasingly becoming severe. Globally, it is estimated that more than 500 billion of plastic bags are consumed every year. Currently, in the United States alone, Americans are throwing 100 billion plastic bags every year which is roughly equivalent to 12 million gallons of oil as plastic are made from carbon drawn from petroleum (Mcnamee). Moreover, it is estimated that more than 350 tons of plastic waste are disposed directly into the sea world wide.A single plastic bag takes more than a hundred years before it breaks down. It is durable and very convenient to use and seemingly very harmless. Ironically, the single plastic bag, which was use to put on the classy shoe or bag that we purchase on the mall can cause the lives of several animals. Can we imagine how much damage the billion of plastic bags and other plastic waste can do to marine lives and to our own health? Plastic Waste as Threat to Marine lifeIn 1997 during a Transpacific Yacht Race, between California and Hawaii, Captain Charles Moore accidentally discovered what is now known as the TRASH VORTEX or the Great Pacific Garbage Patch in the Pacific Ocean. The trash vortex is approximately twice the size of Texas and four times the size of Germany in Pacific Ocean which is filled with various floating plastic waste from old toys, golf balls, kayaks, plastic bottles and a lot more. which will not be able to decay in our lifetime. Besides to the floating trash vortex, it is assumed that 70% of the plastic waste sinks into sea bottom. According to Greenpeace, approximately 110 pieces of plastic waste were to be found per square kilometer at the sea bottom. It is calculated that a total of 600,000 tons of plastic waste are found at the bottom of the North Sea alone (Greenpeace). Plastic bags entangle birds which eventually strangled them death as they are unable to free themselves. Sea animals and other marine mammals have mistakenly eaten plastic, which causes their eventual death. According to a study conducted by marine biologist at the University of Kiel in Germany, 93% of the 180 dead birds which has been collected along the German shoreline, has been found to have plastic waste inside their stomachs (Altnau).In Australia, a crocodile named Whitey, which was part of a government wildlife tracking program was found dead and upon autopsy was

Public Goods Essay Example for Free

Public Goods Essay We are very much familiar with this line â€Å"I believe the children are our future, teach them well and let them lead the way†. Children are considered the hope of every nation for they will soon become our leaders. We all want our children to get everything they deserve to get, receive fair treatment and have high quality education because this will help them contribute to the welfare of the society, they are a good investment. But not all parents have the capacity to provide even the most basic needs of their children. Sometimes we wish children were just valued as a public good. A public good is a term used by economists to refer to a product (i. e. , a good or service) of which anyone can consume as much as desired without reducing the amount available for others. ( Public Goods: A Brief Introduction). Myra Stober suggested in her article that children must be raised and guided collectively so the nation as a whole will benefit from them not just their parents. If that happens, equality among children can be accomplished and the nation will prosper a lot from them. However, if this will be implemented it can lead to market failure where uncoordinated markets driven by parties working in their own self interest are unable to provide these goods in desired quantities. (Wikipedia) Considering children as a public good is only an alternative and should not be considered the best solution because is not the best remedy to proper child care. Meeting their needs cannot be done in a snap because it takes a lot of consideration to do so. Works Cited The Linux Information Project (LINFO) â€Å"Public Goods: A Brief Introduction† Web . 16 Feb 2006. 29 July 2010 http://www. linfo. org/public_good. html Public Good. Wikipedia. org. 29 July 2010. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Public_good

Causes and Effects of Tuberculosis

Causes and Effects of Tuberculosis Tuberculosis is a chronic, infectious and deadly disease caused by Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis often attacks lungs but it is also known for attacking other parts of the body (extrapulmonary tuberculosis). The infection site of extrapulmonary tuberculosis includes the central nervous system, the lymphatic system particularly in the neck, genitourinary system and bones and joints. People with active tuberculosis often show some of these symptoms: Mycobacteria are found abundantly in habitats such as pond and soil. However, a few are intracellular pathogens to animals and humans. Tuberculosis is transmitted through aerosol route but the transmission can also occur via gastrointestinal route. Coughing, sneezing and spitting by people with active tuberculosis releases droplet nuclei containing the germ which is known as bacilli into the air. The droplet nuclei can remain suspended in the air for up to several hours. Infection only occurs when someone inhales the droplet nuclei. A person needs only to inhale a  treated with existing drugs and medications. To make the condition even worse, new tuberculosis germ (XDR-TB) that is extremely resistant to drugs has been found in US. Now, the governments are focusing more on the preventive measure and at the same time, searching for a possible drug or vaccine that could eliminate the problem once and for all. So, to address this issue, I have focused my research on this question What are current available treatments for tuberculosis? Current Possible Solution With the advancement of technology, mankind had the power in combating with deadly diseases. Tuberculosis, which had killed millions of people in the nineteenth century, was brought under control by using vaccines and drugs. Drug treatments are used extensively in treating people with active tuberculosis. Latent tuberculosis, however, does not require intensive care but merely prescribed medication for several months. Vaccines, on the contrary, are used as preventive measures in areas of higher tuberculosis risk. Apart from that, vaccines are used by healthcare workers, newborns, and travelers who are at constant risk of getting infected by the disease. One of the most commonly used vaccine in prevention of tuberculosis, the BCG vaccine, is discussed below. But, first, I will discuss about the drug treatments. Tuberculosis treated with drugs has a mortality rate of less than 5%. This shows that the current available drugs for tuberculosis are quite effective in treating the disease. Among the common drugs used in tuberculosis treatment are isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol. These drugs aim at inhibiting the bacterial activity thus improving the patients conditions. Anti-tuberculosis drugs are classified into three major categories. They are the first line drugs, the second line drugs and the third line drugs. These drugs are classified according to their effectiveness in treating the disease and their availability. The first line drugs are as follows: Ethambutol-EMB or E, Isoniazid-INH or H, Pyrazinamide-PZA or Z, Rifampicin-RMP or R, Streptomycin-STM or S (802 words) There are six classes of second line drugs. These drugs are classified second class because they may be less effective than first line drugs (p-aminosalicylic acid), they may have harmful side-effects (cycloserine) or they may not be available in the developing countries (fluoroquinolones). aminoglycosides: e.g.-amikacin(AMK), kanamycin(KM); polypeptides: e.g.-capreomycin, viomycin, enviomycin; fluoroquinolones: e.g.-ciprofloxacin(CIP), levofloxacin, moxifloxacin(MXF); thioamides: e.g.-ethionamide, prothionamide; cycloserine(the only antibiotic in its class); p-aminosalicylic acid(PAS or P). Other drugs (third line drugs) that may be useful, but are not on the WHO list: rifabutin macrolides: e.g.-clarithromycin(CLR); linezolid(LZD); thioacetazone(T); thioridazine; arginine; vitamin D; R207910. Tuberculosis treatments are often done as combination therapies (except for latent tuberculosis where only one type of drug is prescribed to the patient) because single drug therapy would result in rapid development of resistance which would lead to the failure of the treatment. Besides that, there are other reasons to support the combination therapy. Different drugs have different form of action. For example, PZA is a weak bactericidal but is very effective against bacteria located in acidic conditions. On the other hand, INH is very effective against replicating bacteria. RMP is a good bactericidal and at the same time, has sterilizing effects. This proves that, using combination therapy is effective to counter the disease and at the same time, it would prevent the mutation of the bacteria into drug resistant. Upon infection, tuberculosis bacteria are taken up by the alveolar macrophages and are carried to the lymph nodes where it may be spread to other parts of the body (this is the basis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis). Two to eight weeks after infection, hypersensitivity and cell-mediated immunity develops and suppression of the infection will result in people with good, healthy immune system. People, who are immunocompromised, will develop inflammatory immune response which eventually leads to lung damage. These drugs functions by confining the bacteria and at the same time, since it has antibiotic effects, it will kill the bacteria, thus, improving the patients condition. It would usually take about six months or more for full (1153 words) recovery with 2-3% of relapse rate. Continuation of medication would be recommended by the physician to avoid the problem form reappearing. Isoniazid is one particular type of the drug which is commonly used due to its effectiveness in treating tuberculosis. This medication is best taken on an empty stomach 1 hour before or 2 hours after meals. But it may be taken with food or milk if stomach upset occurs. Take as directed. Do not stop taking this medication without your doctors approval. Stopping therapy early may result in ineffective treatment and the infection could recur. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) supplements may be prescribed in addition to this medication to prevent numbness and tingling. Extracted from MedicineNet.com- Isoniazid ORAL (Niazid) side effects, medical uses and drug interaction. Figure 1 Fgure4- Effect of aspirin or ibuprofen administered in combination with isoniazid on lung(a) and spleen(b) log10 CFU in murine tuberculosis. ASP only, aspirin(20 mg/kg of body weight); IBU only, ibuprofen(20 mg/kg); INH only, isoniazid(25 mg/kg); ASP+INH, aspirin and isoniazid(20 and 25 mg/kg, respectively); IBU+INH, ibuprofen and isoniazid(20 and 25 mg/kg, respectively). There is reliable and concrete evidence that isoniazid is effective in curbing the disease. The graph shows clearly that when isoniazid is administered to a patient with murine tuberculosis, it effectively inhibits the progress of the disease. This can be seen when there is zero tuberculous bacterium count when INH is administered. The drug acts in the same way in both liver and spleen. Other drugs, such as ibuprofen and aspirin are used to compare the relative effectiveness of each individual drug. Ibuprofen seems not to interfere with the INH mechanism while aspirin reduces the effectiveness of INH. So, aspirin should be avoided when using drug regime containing INH to prevent it from interfering with INH mechanism. (1447 words) Benefits and Risks of Drug Treatment As with all forms of medications, tuberculosis drugs also pose some side-effects which may cause uneasiness to the patient. The benefits of tuberculosis drug treatments are well known. It effectively reduces symptoms of the disease upon the administration of the medication and in most cases; the drug cures the disease with 2-3% of relapse rate. Drug treatment also decreases the mortality rate significantly; reducing it to less than 5%. This means number of people dying from tuberculosis or tuberculosis related diseases is falling every year. On the other hand, the risks of drug treatments are severe but only in remote cases. This is usually due to the aggravation of the side-effects by the risk factors such as alcohol abuse, history of hepatitis, diabetes mellitus and HIV infection. Increasing age is also a risk factor for the noncompliance to the treatment. The severe forms of side-effects are drug-induced hepatitis, arthralgia, central nervous system toxicity and exanthema. The drug treatments also pose some rather common adverse-effects. These include nausea, abdominal pain, fever, diarrhea and fluid (saliva, tears and urine) discolouration. Table1-Number of side-effects due to isoniazid, rifampin or pyrazinamide followed by final termination of  one of the drugs (n=519) Side-effect Isoniazid Rifampin Pyrazinamide Total Hepatotoxicity 19(4) 8(1.5) 28(5) 55(11) Arthralgia 1(0.2) 12(2) 13(2) Exanthema 6(1.2) 27(5) 33(6) CNS toxicity* 8(1.5) 8(1.5) Nausea 5(0.9) 5(0.9) Others# 7(1.4) 7(1.4) Total 34(7) 8(1.5) 79(15) 121(23) Values are present as absolute number, and percentage in  parenthesis. *:including peripheral neuropathy(n=6) and  seizure(n=2); #:including leucopenia(n=1), fever(n=3) and  severe hyperuricaemia(n=3). CNS: central nervous system. After evaluating both pros and cons of the drug treatment, I feel that the benefits of drug treatment outweigh the risks. Therefore, the risks should not discourage the patient from continuing the medication. The completion of the medication is vital for the full recovery from the disease. Social and Economic Implications of the Disease Tuberculosis is the worlds largest endemic with one third of world population being infected with the disease. And tuberculosis remains the greatest terror in developing nations. This is because the disease causes unbearable social and economic implications to the one infected with the disease. The substantial non-treatment costs of TB are borne by the patients and their  families. These are often greater than the costs of treatment to the health sector.   The largest indirect cost of TB for a patient is income lost by being too sick to work. Studies suggest that on average three to four months of work time are lost, resulting  in average lost potential earnings of 20% to 30% of annual household income. For the families of those that die from the disease, there is the further loss of about  15 years of income because of the premature death of the TB sufferer. Extracted from the Stop Tb Initiative by WHO It is very clear that tuberculosis, left untreated, would result in loss in terms of financial support. Therefore, it is vital for the authority to provide necessary treatment to the patients and, at the same time, they should also work on preventive measures such as awareness campaigns and vaccinations to prevent the spread of the disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) have cited TB treatment as one of the most cost-effective health interventions accessible at a cost of only $10 for every year of life gained. Effectively treating TB will not solve the worldwide AIDS crisis, but it will significantly reduce its burden Dr Piot, Executive Director, Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS On the other hand, a person with tuberculosis would have to live as an outcast. This is very true in the poorer nations of the world where the people do not have enough knowledge about the disease thus exiling the patient from their community. This would result in the patient losing moral support and faith which may ultimately lead to suicide. (2093 words) Alternative Solution Ayurvedic treatment Ayurveda, traditional Indian medication, is also proven to be effective in combating against tuberculosis. Current tuberculosis drug treatments induce unfavourable side-effects such as decreased appetite and liver inflammation. On the long run, it could lead to permanent liver damage. Therefore, combined with ayuvedic medication such as Kutki (Picrorrhiza kurroa), Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), Sharapunkha (Tephrosia purpurea) and Kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata) would prevent any damage to the liver and would result in increased efficiency in treating the disease. Tuberculosis of the lymph glands also could cause serious problems. Ayurvedic medicines like Kancnnaar (Bauhinia variegata), Kanchnaar Guggulu and Triphala Guggulu can increase the bodys immune response towards the disease. These ayurvedic medicines when combined with correct drug regimes would effectively fight off the disease and prevent it from relapsing. Ayurvedic medicines are known to increase immune response signi ficantly, thus, making the body to be able to fight the infection. Prevention Methods Vaccination Besides drug treatments, there is another practical approach to eradicate the endemic worldwide. This solution aims at preventing the disease. Vaccination is the best, available solution for most of the contagious disease. For tuberculosis, Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) is the current available vaccine. This vaccine is actually an attenuated strain of live mycobacterium bovis which has lost its virulence after being carefully cultured artificially for many years. This vaccine works by providing natural passive immunity in which the infection with bovine tuberculosis would protect against infection with human tuberculosis. This is the result of memory cells in our body being able to recognize the same type of infection and providing instant protection against the disease. BCG is found to be very effective in giving protection primarily in children aged 3 and below and teenagers aged 14-20. Efficiency of BCG also differs according to geography. The first large scale trial evaluating the efficacy of BCG was conducted from 1956 to 1963 and involved almost 60,000 school children who received BCG at the age of 14 or 15; this study showed an efficacy of 84% up to 6 years after immunization. However, a US Public Health Service trial of BCG in Georgia and Alabama published in 1966 showed an efficacy of only 14%, and did much to convince the US that it did not want to implement mass immunization with BCG. A further trial conducted in South India and published in 1979 (the Chingleput trial), showed no protective effect. Extracted from Bacillus_Calmette-Guerin_Wikipedia-the_free_encyclopedia. Reducing exposure Tuberculosis is directly dependent on the degree of exposure. The more a person comes into contact with the disease, the higher is the chance to suffer from active tuberculosis. Generally, inhalation of minute amount of the bacilli would result in the immune response which immediately inactivates the disease thus preventing it from progressing. However, a direct exposure to a relatively high amount of the bacilli would result in the immune system to be unable to wall off the disease fast enough. This would result in the person developing active tuberculosis although he may not have the history of the disease before. Therefore, visit to places with a high incidence of tuberculosis should be avoided. Furthermore, we should also avoid close contact with people infected by the disease. Apart from that, personal hygiene, and the practice of wearing mask should be cultured in the society to prevent the spread of the disease. On top of that, self-quarantine should be practiced by individual s if they are suspected to carry the infection. Evaluation For the research on this issue, I have used a number of sources ranging from websites to newspaper articles and books. The World Health Organisation official webpage; http://www.who.int/en/ is one of the sources that I have used in my research. I find that this website provides loads of information regarding tuberculosis. This source is definitely trustable as it is the official webpage of a world-recognized organization which is committed to the welfare of the people. The facts and information obtained from this website is valid and reliable under any circumstances because they are up to date. Moreover, WHO have also organized research on this issue and the findings have been reviewed by experts from all over the world. One such research is the Economic Impacts of Tuberculosis. On top of that, I found that a lot of other websites such as http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis, http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1000600 and http://www.wrongdiagn osis.com/t/tuberculosis/stats.htm have cited WHO in their websites. This proves that WHO is a reliable source of information for this issue. Furthermore, I have evaluated another source http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/tuberculosis/DS00372/DSECTION=treatments-and-drugs and found that there are similarities in terms of facts presented in the website with other renowned websites such as http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_treatment, http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/common/infections/common/bacterial/120.html, and http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tuberculosis.html. Similar information was also found in the journal Risk factors for side-effects of isoniazid, rifampin and pyrazinamide in patients hospitalized for pulmonary tuberculosis from the European Respiratory Journal. This source, therefore, is trustable because it has a lot of correspondence with other sources.

short story run :: essays research papers

He doesn’t sleep for more than a few hours. He doesn’t know why it is, just that he has never been able to let the night take him. The house isn’t big enough to hold his thoughts. Everyday it’s on his mind. The pain only comes when he tries to rest. He tries filling his time with activities to make himself better. Three a.m. is when he starts running. It’s the best time to go for a run, no one to bug him when he leaves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The house sleeps. He opens the door so the house stays asleep. He likes to run; it’s the only thing that keeps him going. He tightens his shoes and takes the time to stretch. The chill of the night starts his journey. He runs blind; no set path, he just picks a direction and goes. He goes down the road and through the park; up the hill and past the school. The road becomes dirt and the houses become corn. The lights of the city are nothing more than a long shadow. Nothing more than the thought of what he is trying to forget. He searches for nothing and doesn’t look back; he forgets the path he took and moves on. Here the world is a place for him to discover, for him to be himself and he doesn’t worry about a thing. The pain doesn’t make a sound out here, away from everything. He stops. The wind cools his sweat. He sits and watches the stars disappear. He forgets where he is and lets the peace of nothing come upon him. Other runners come by and decide to join him in the grass nearby. He welcomes them with a peaceful smile. They watch him and wonder what he is doing. With a mouthful of grass, they continue to make sure that he will not hurt them. With white tails high they continue their run, and he decides that he has rested long enough. The night air changes, and it becomes damp. Clouds cover the moon and he knows what is coming. The first drop hits his nose and the second lands on his chest. The drops start small, but in a matter of minutes they become the size of gumdrops. He doesn’t care because he knows there is nothing he can do about it. Without the moon’s light, the night become very black.

Greek Art(Sculpture, Vessels)

Greek Art No matter how accomplished they might be, the works of art we have discussed so far seem alien to us. The ancient cultures that produced them were so different from our own that we find few references in those works to our time. Greek architecture, sculpture, and painting, however, are immediately recognizable as the ancestors of Western civilization, despite their debts to earlier art. A Greek temple reminds us of countless government buildings, banks, and college campuses; a Greek statue recalls countless statues of our own day; and a Greek coin is a little different from those we use today.This is neither coincidental nor inevitable. Western civilization has carefully constructed itself in the image of the Greek or the Roman worlds. For an art historian trying to understand the visual culture of those worlds, this presents a special challenge: It is tempting to believe that something familiar on the surface holds the same significance for us as it did for the Greeks or t he Romans, but scholars have discovered time and time again that this is a dangerous fallacy.Another complication in studying Greek art arises because there are three separate, and sometimes conflicting, sources of information on the subject. First, there are the works themselves—reliable, but only a small fraction of what once existed. Second, there are Roman copies of Greek originals, especially sculptures. These works tell us something about important pieces that would otherwise be lost to us, but copies pose their own problems. Without the original, we cannot determine how faithful the copy is, and sometimes multiple copies present several versions of a single original.To make things even more complicated, a Roman copyist’s notion of a copy was quite different from ours. A Roman copy was not necessarily intended as a strict imitation, but allowed for interpreting or adapting the work according to the taste or skill of the copyist or the wishes of the patron. Moreov er, the quality of some Greek sculpture owed much to surface finish, which, in a copy, is entirely up to the copyist. If the original was bronze and the copy marble, the finish would differ dramatically.In some rare cases, apparent copies are of such high quality that we cannot be sure that they really are copies. The third source of information about Greek works is literature. The Greeks were the first Western people to write at length about their own artists. Roman writers incorporated Greek accounts into their own: many of these have survived, although often in fragmentary condition. These written sources offer a glimpse of what the Greeks themselves considered their most important achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting.This written testimony has helped us to identify celebrated artists and monuments, though much of it deals with works that have not survived. In other cases, surviving Greek works that strike us as among the greatest masterpieces of their time are n ot mentioned at all in literature. Reconciling the literature with the copies and the original works, and weaving these strands into a coherent picture of the development of Greek art, has been the difficult task of archeologists and ancient art historians for several centuries.The Greek Gods and Goddesses All early civilizations and preliterate cultures had creation myths to explain the origin of the universe and humanity’s place in it. Over time, these myths evolved into complex cycles that represent a comprehensive attempt to understand the world. The Greek gods and goddesses, though immortal, behaved in very human ways. They quarreled, and had children with each other‘s spouses and often with mortals as well. They were sometimes threatened and even overthrown by their own children.The principal Greek gods and goddesses, with their Roman counterparts in parentheses, are given below. ZEUS (Jupiter): son of Kronos and Rhea; god of sky and weather, and king of the Olymp ian deities. After killing Kronos, Zeus married his sister HERA (Juno) and divided the universe by lot with his brothers: POSEIDON (Neptune) as allotted the sea and HADES (Pluto) was allotted the Underworld, which he ruled with his queen PERSEPHONE (Proserpina). Zeus and Hera had several children: ARES (Mars), the god of war HEBE, the goddess of youthHEPHAISTOS (Vulcan), the lame god of metalwork and the forge Zeus lost had numerous children through his love affairs with other goddesses and with mortal women, including: ATHENA (Minerva), goddess of crafts, including war, and thus of intelligence and wisdom. A protector of heroes, she became the patron goddess of Athens, an honor she won in a contest with Poseidon. Her gift to the city was an olive tree, which she caused to sprout on the Akropolis. APHRODITE (Venus), the goddess of love, beauty, and female fertility. She married Hephaistos, but had many affairs.Her children were HARMONIA, EROS, and ANTEROS (with Ares); HERMAPHRODITOS (with Hermes); PRIAPOS (with Dionysos); and AENEAS (with the Trojan prince Anchises). APOLLO ( Apollo), with his twin sister ARTEMIS, god of the stringed lyre and bow, who therefore both presided over the civilized pursuits of music and poetry, and shot down transgressors; a paragon of male beauty, he was also the god of prophecy and medicine. ARTEMIS (Diana), with her twin brother, APOLLO, virgin goddesses of the hunt and the protector of young girls.She was also sometimes considered a moon goddess with SELENE. DIONYSOS (Bacchus), the god of altered states particularly that induced the wine. Opposite in temperament to Apollo, Dionysos was raised on Mount Nysa, where he invented winemaking; he married the princess Ariadne after the hero Theseus abandoned her on Naxos. His followers, the goatish satyrs and their female companions, the nymphs and humans who were known as maenads (bacchantes), were given to orgiastic excess. Yet, there was another, more temperate side to Dionysos†™ character.As the god of fertility, he was also a god of vegetation, as well as of peace, hospitality, and the theater. HERMES (Mercury), the messenger of the gods, conductor of souls to Hades, and the god of travelers and commerce. The great flowering of ancient Greek art was just one manifestation of a wide-ranging exploration of humanistic and religious issues. Artists, writers, and philosophers struggled with common question, still preserved in a huge body of works. Their inquiries cut to the very core of human existence, and have formed the backbone of much of Western philosophy.For the most part, they accepted a pantheon of gods, whom they worshiped in human form. (See Informing Art, above) Yet they debated the nature of those gods, and the relationship between divinities and humankind. Did fate control human actions, or was there free will? And if so, what was the nature of virtue? Greek thinkers conceived of many aspects of life in dualistic terms. Order (cosmos, in Greek ) was eternally opposed to disorder (chaos), and both poles permeated existence. Civilization, which was, by definition, Greek, stood in pposition to an uncivilized world beyond Greek borders; all non-Greeks were â€Å"barbarians†, named for the nonsensical sound of their languages to Greek ears (â€Å"bar-bar-bar-bar†). Reason, too, had its opposite: the irrational, mirrored in light and darkness, in man and woman. In their literature and in their art, the ancient Greeks addressed the tension between these polar opposites. THE EMERGENCE OF GREEK ART: THE GEOMETRIC STYLE The first Greek-speaking groups came to Greece about 2000 BCE. These newcomers brought with them a new culture that soon evolved to encompass most of mainland Greece, as well as the Aegean Islands and Crete.By the first millennium BCE the Greeks had colonized the west coast of Asia Minor and Cyprus. In this period we distinguish three main subgroups: the Dorinians, centered in Peloponnese; the Ionians, inhabiting Attica, Euboea, the Cyclades, and the central coast of Asia Minor; and the Aeolians, who ended up in the northeast Aegean (see map 5. 1). Despite their cultural differences and their geographical dispersal, the Greeks had a strong sense of kinship, based on language and common beliefs.From the mid-eighth through the mid-sixth centuries BCE, there was a wave of colonization as the Greeks expanded across the Mediterranean and as far as the Black Sea. At this time, they founded important settlements in Sicily and southern Italy, collectively known as Magna Graecia, and in North Africa. After the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, art became largely nonfigural for several centuries. In the eighth century BCE, the oldest Greek style that we know in the arts developed, known today as the Geometric.Images appeared at about the time the alphabet was introduced (under strong Near Eastern influence). It was contemporaneous, too, with the work of the poet Homer (or a group of poet s), who wrote the lasting epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey, tales of the Trojan War and the return of one of its heroes, Odysseus, home to Ithaka. We also have works in painted pottery and small-scale sculpture in clay and bronze. The two forms are closely related: Pottery was often adorned with the kinds of figures found in sculpture. Geometric Style PotteryAs quickly as pottery became an art form, Greek potters began to develop an extensive, but fairly standardized, repertoire of vessel shape (fig. 5. 1). Each type was well adapted to its function, which was reflected in its form. As a result, each shape presented unique challenges to the painter, and some became specialists at decorating certain types of vases. Larger pots often attracted the most ambitious craftsmen because they provided a more generous field on which to work. Making and decorating vases were complex processes, usually performed by different artisans.At first painters decorated their wares with abstract desi gns, such as triangles, â€Å"checkerboard†, and concentric circles. Toward 800 BCE human and animal figures began to appear within the geometric framework, and in the most elaborate examples these figures interacted in narrative scenes. The vase shown here, from a cemetery near the later Dipylon gate in the northwestern corner of Athens, dates to around 750 BCE (fig. 5. 2). Known as the Dipylon Vase, it was one of a group of unusually large vessels used as grave monuments. Holen in its base allowed liquid offerings (libations) to filter down to the dead below.In earlier centuries, Athenians had placed the ashes of their cremated dead inside vases, choosing the vase's shape according to the sex of the deceased. A woman's remains were buried in a belly-handled amphora, a type of vase more commonly used for storing wine or oil; a man's ashes were placed in a neck-amphora. A krater, a large bowl-like vessel in which Greeks normally mixed wine with water, had also been used as a burial marker since the early first millennium(see fig. 5. 1). The shape of the example illustrated here shows that the deceased was a woman; its sheer monumentality indicates that she was a woman of considerable means.The amphora is a masterpiece of the potter's craft. At over 5 feet tall, it was too large to be thrown in one piece. Instead, the potter built it up in sections, joined with a clay slip. A careful proportional scheme governed the vessels' form: Its width measures half of its height and the neck measures half the height of the body. The artist placed the handles so as to emphasize the widest point of the body. Most of the vase's decoration is given over to geometric patterns dominated by a meander pattern, also known as a maze or Greek key pattern (fig 5. ), a band of rectangular scrolls, punctuated with bands of lustrous black paint at the neck, the shoulder, and the base. The geometric design reflects the proportional system of the vase's shape. Single meander patter ns run in bands toward the top and bottom of the neck; the triple meander encircling the neck at the center emphasizes its length. The double and single meanders on the amphora's body appear stocky by contrast, complementing the body's rounder form. Above the triple meander on the neck, deer graze, one after the other, in an identical pattern circling the vase.This animal frieze prefigures the widespread use of the motif in the seventh century BCE. At the base of the neck, they recline, with their heads turned back over their bodies, like an animate version of the meander pattern itself, which moves ever forward while turning back upon itself. In the center of the amphora, framed between its handles, is a narrative scene. The deceased lies on a bier, beneath a checkered shroud. Flanking her are standing figures with their arms raised above their heads in a gesture of lamentation; an additional four figures kneel on sit beneath the bier.Rather than striving for naturalism, the painte r used solid black geometric forms to construct human bodies. A triangle represents the torso, and the raised arms extend the triangle beyond the shoulders. The scene itself represents the prothesis, part of the Athenian funerary ritual when the dead person lay in state and public mourning took place. A lavish funeral was an occasion to display wealth and status, and crowds of mourners were so desirable that families would hire professional mourners for the event.Thus the depiction of a funeral on the burial marker is not simply journalistic reportage but a visual record of the deceased person's high standing in society. Archeologists have found Geometric pottery in Italy and the Near East as well as in Greece. This wide distribution is a sign of the important role not only the Greeks but also the Phoenicians, North Syrians, and other Near Eastern peoples as agents of diffusion all around the Mediterranean. What is more, from the second half of the eighth century onwards, inscriptio ns on hese vases show that the Greeks had already adapted the Phoenician alphabet to their own use. Geometric Style Sculpture A small, bronze sculptural group representing a man and a centaur dates to about the same time as the funerary amphora, and there are distinct similarities in the way living forms are depicted in both works of art(fig. 5. 4). Thin arms and flat, triangular chests contrast with more rounded buttocks and legs. The heads are spherical forms, with beards and noses added. The artist cast the group in one piece, uniting them with a common base and their entwined pose.The group was probably found in the sanctuary at Olympia. Judging by its figurative quality, and by the costliness of the material and technique, it was probably a sumptuous votive offering. The figures obviously interact, revealing the artist's interest in narrative, a theme that persists throughout the history of Greek art. Whether the artist was referring to a story known to his audience is hard to say. The figures' helmets tell us that their encounter is martial, and the larger scale of the man may suggest that he will be the victor in the struggle.Many scholars believe he represents Herakles, son of Zeus and a Greek hero, who fought centaurs many times in the course of his mythical travails. THE ORIENTALIZING STYLE: HORIZONS EXPAND Between about 725 and 650 BCE, a new style of pottery and sculpture emerged in Greece that reflects strong influences initially from the Near East and later from Egypt. Scholars know this as the Orientalizing period, when Greek art and culture rapidly absorbed a host of Eastern motifs and ideas, including hybrid creatures such as griffins and sphinxes.This absorption of Eastern ideas led to a vital period of experimentation, as painters and sculptors mastered new forms. Map 5. 1 The Ancient Greek World 5. 1 Some common Greek vessel forms 5. 2 Late Geometric belly-handled amphora by the Dipylon Master, from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens. ca 750 BCE. Height 5'1† (1. 55 m) National Archaeological Museum, Athens 5. 3 Common Greek ornamental motifs 5. 4 Man and Centaur, perharps from Olympia. ca 750 BCE. Bronze. Height 4 3/8 † (11. 1 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917. 17. 190. 072 Miniature Vessels The Orientalizing style replaced the Geometric in many Greek city-states, including Athens. One of the foremost centers of its production, though, was Corinth, at the northeastern gateway to the Peloponnese. This city became a leader in colonizing ventures in the west and came to dominate the trade in exports. Corinthian workshops had a long history of pottery production. Vase painters learned to make a refined black gloss slip, which they used to create silhouette or outline images. They could also incise the slip to add detail and vivacity to their work.They particularly specialized in crafting miniature vessels like the vase shown here, which is at Proto-Corinthian aryballos o r perfume jar, dating to about 680 BCE (fig. 5. 5). Archeologists have discovered vessels like this one throughout the Greek world, left in sanctuaries as dedications to the gods, or buried as grave goods. Despite its small size, intricate decoration covers the vase's surface. Around the shoulder stalks a frieze of animals, reminiscent of Near Eastern animal motifs and of the early example seen on the Dipylon Vase (see figs. 2. 25 and 5. 2).Bands are real and imaginary animals are a hallmark of Corinthian and other Orientalizing wares, covering later vases from top to bottom. A guilloche pattern ornaments the handle, and meander patterns cover the edge of the mouth and the handle (see fig. 5. 3). The principal figural frieze offers another early example of pictorial narrative, but the daily life scenes of Geometric pottery have yielded to the fantastic world of myth. On one side, a stocky nude male wielding a sword runs toward a vase on a stand. On the side shown here, bearded male struggles to wrest a scepter or staff from the grasp of a centaur.According to one theory, the frieze represents a moment in Herakles' conflict with a band of centaurs on Mount Pholoe. In Greek mythology, centaurs were notoriously susceptible to alcohol, and the mixing bowl for wine represented on the other side may indicate the reason for their rowdiness. Others interpret the â€Å"Herakles† figure as Zeus, brandishing his thunderbolt or lightning. No matter how one reads this scene, there is no doubt that it was meant to evoke a mythological reality. BRONZE TRIPODS During the Geometric period, Greeks would sometimes set up bronze tripod cauldrons in sanctuaries as dedications to the gods (fig. . 6). The gesture was an act of piety, but it was also a way of displaying wealth, and some of the tripod cauldrons reached monumental proportions. From the early seventh century BCE, a new type of monumental vessel was introduced— the Orientalizing cauldron. Around the edge of the bowl, bronze-workers might catch protomes, images of sirens (winged female creatures), and griffins— both were fantasy creatures that were known in the Near East. The cast protome shown here, from the island of Rhodes, is a magnificently ominous creature, standing watch over the dedication (fig. 5. 7).The boldly upright ears and the vertical knob on top of the head contrast starkly with the strong curves of the neck, head, eyes, and mouth, while its menacing tongue is silhouetted in countercurve against the beak. The straight lines appear to animate the curves, so that the dangerous hybrid seems about to spring. ARCHAIC ART: ART OF THE CITY-STATE During the course of the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, the Greeks appear to have refined their notion of a polis, or city-state. Once merely a citadel, the place of refuge in times of trouble, the city came to represent a community and an identity.City-states, as they are known, were governed in several different ways, includ ing monarchy (from monarches, â€Å"sole ruler†), aristocracy (from aristoi and kratia, â€Å"rule of the best†), tyranny (from tyrannos, â€Å"despot†), oligarchy (from oligoi, â€Å"the few,† a small ruling elite), and, in Athens, democracy (from demos, â€Å"the people†). The road to democracy moved slowly, starting with Solon's reforms at the end of the sixth century in Athens. Even by the time of Perikles' radical democratic reforms of 462 BCE, women played no direct role in civic life, and slavery was the accepted practice in Athens, as it was everywhere in the Greek world.With the changing ideal of the city-state came a change in its physical appearance. The Rise of Monumental Temple Architecture At some point in the seventh century BCE, Greek architects began to design temples using stone rather than wood. The earliest were probably built at Corinth, in a style known as Doric, named for the region where it originated. From there the idea sp read across the isthmus that connects the Peloponnesos to the mainland and up the coast to Delphi and the island of Corfu, then rapidly throughout the Hellenic world.The Ionic style soon developed on the Aegean Islands and the coast of Asia Minor. The Corinthian style did not develop until the fourth century BCE (see page 142). Greeks recognized the importance of this architectural revolution at the time: Architects began to write treatises on architecture— the first we know of— and the personal fame they achieved through their work has lasted to this day. Writing in Roman times, the architect Vitruvius described the Doric and Ionic styles, and his discussions of them have been central to our understanding of Greek architecture.However, our readings of his text have been mediated through early modern commentators and illustrators, who wrote of Doric and Ionic â€Å"orders† rather than â€Å"types†, which is a better translation of Vitruvius' â€Å"genera †. The distinction is important: â€Å"Order† suggest an immutable quality, a rigid building code, when in fact we find a subtle but rich variation in surviving Greek architecture. The essential, functioning components of Doric and Ionic temples are very similar, though they may vary according to the size of the building or regional preferences (fig. 5. ). The nucleus of the building—in fact, its reason for existing— is its main chamber, its cella or naos. This chamber housed an image of the god to whom the temple was dedicated. Often, interior columns lined the cella walls and helped to support the roof, as well as visually framing the cult statue. Approaching the cella is a porch or pronaos, and in some cases a second porch was added behind the cella, making the design more symmetrical and providing space for religious paraphernalia. In large temples, a colonnade or peristyle surrounds the central unit of ella and porches, and the building is known as a peripteral temple. The peristyle commonly consists of six to eight columns at front and back, and usually 12 to 17 along the sides, counting the corner columns twice; the very largest temples of Ionian Greece had a double colonnade. The peristyle added more than grandeur: It offered worshipers shelter from the elements. Being neither entirely exterior nor entirely interior space, it also functioned as a transitional zone, between the profane world outside and the sanctity of the cella.Some temples were set in sacred groves, where the columns, with their strong vertical form, integrated the temple with its environment. Echoed again inside the cella, the columns also integrated the exterior and interior of the building. Most Greek temples are oriented so that the entrance faces east, toward the rising sun. East of the temple is usually the altar, the truly indispensable installation for the performance of ritual. It was on the altar that Greeks performed sacrifices, standing before th e cult statue and the worshipping community of the Greek polis.Differences between the Doric and Ionic styles are apparent in a head-on view, or elevation. Many of the terms Greeks used to describe the parts of their buildings, shown in figure 5. 9, are still in common usage today. The building proper rests on an elevated platform, normally approached by three steps, known as the stereobate and stylobate. A Doric column consists of the shaft, usually marked by shallow vertical grooves, known as flutes, and the capital. The capital is made up of the flaring, cushionlike echinus and a square tablet called the abacus.The entablature, which includes all the horizontal elements that rest on the columns, is subdivided into the architrave(a row of stone blocks directly supported by the columns); the frieze, made up of alternating triple-grooved triglyphs and smooth or sculpted metopes; and a projecting horizontal cornice, or geison, which may include a gutter (sima). The architrave in turn supports the triangular pediment and the roof elements (the raking geison and raking sima). Ionic temples tend to rest on an additional leveling course, or euthynteria, as well as three steps.An Ionic column differs from a Doric column in having an ornate base of its own, perhaps used at first to protect the bottom from rain. Its shaft is more slender, with less tapering, ART IN TIME ca. 8th century BCE—Homer writes The Iliad and The Odyssey 776 BCE—First Olympic Games ca. 753 BCE—Rome founded ca. 750 BCE—Dipylon Vase 5. 5 The Ajax Painter. Aryballos (perfume jar). Middle Protocorinthian IA, 690-675 BCE. Ceramic. Height 2 7/8† (7. 3 cm). diameter 1 3/4† (4. 4 cm). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Catharine Page Perkins Fund. Photograph  © 2006, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 95. 12 5. 6 Geometric tripod cauldron from Olympia. th century. Height 2'1 1/2† (65 cm). Olympia Museum 5. 7 Griffin-head protome from a bronze tripod-cauldron, from Ka meiros, Rhodes. ca. 650 BCE. Cast bronze. The British Museum, London 5. 8 Ground plan of a typical Greek peripteral temple (after Grinnell) and the capital has a double scroll or volute below the abacus, which projects strongly beyond the width of the shaft. The Ionic column lacks the muscular quality of its mainland cousin. Instead, it evokes a growing plant, something like a formalized palm tree, and this it shares with its Egyptian predecessors, though it may not have come directly from Egypt.Above the architrave, the frieze is continuous, rather than broken up visually into triglyphs and metopes. Whether Doric or Ionic, the temple structure was built of stone blocks fitted together without mortar, requiring that they be precisely shaped to achieve smooth joints. Where necessary, metal dowels or clamps fastened the blocks together. With rare exceptions, columns were made up of sections, called drums. The shaft was fluted after the entire column was assembled and in position. The roof was made of terra-cotta tiles over wooden rafters, and wooden beams were used for the ceiling.Fire was a constant threat. Just how either style came to emerge in Greece, and why they came together into succint systems so quickly, are still puzzling questions. Remains of the oldest surviving temples show that the main features of the Doric style were already well established soon after 600 BCE. Early Greek builders in stone seem to have drawn upon three sources of inspiration: Mycenaean and Egyptian stone architecture, and pre-Archaic Greek architecture in wood and mud brick. It is possible that the temple's central unit, the cella and porch, derived from the plan of the Mycenaean megaron(see fig. . 19), either through continuous tradition or by way of revival. If true, this relationship may reflect the revered place of Mycenaean culture in later Greek mythology. The shaft of the Doric column tapers upward, not downward like the Minoan-Mycenaean column. This recalls fluted half- columns in the funerary precinct of Djoser at Saqqara (see fig. 3. 6), of over 2,000 years earlier. Moreover, the very notion that temple should be built of stone and have large numbers of columns was an Egyptian one, even if Egyptian temples were designed for greater internal traffic.Scholars assume that the Greeks learned many of their stone-cutting and masonry techniques from the Egyptians, as well as some knowledge of architectural ornamentation and geometry. In a sense, a Greek temple with its peristyle of columns might be viewed as the columned court of an Egyptian sanctuary turned inside out. Some scholars see the development of Doric architecture as a petrification (or turning to stone) of existing wooden forms, so that stone form follows wooden function. According to this view, at one triglyphs masked the ends of wooden beams, and the droplike shapes below, called guttae (see fig. . 9), are the descendants of wooden pegs that held them in place. Metopes evolved out of board s that filled gaps between the triglyphs to guard against weather. Mutules(flat projecting blocks), for their part, reflect the rafter ends in wooden roofs. Some derivations are more convincing than others, however. The vertical subdivisions of triglyphs hardly seem to reflect the forms of three half-round logs, as scholars suggest, and column flutings need not be developed from tool marks on a tree trunk, since Egyptian builders also fluted their columns and yet rarely used timber for supporting members.The question of how far stylistic features can be explained in terms of function faces the architectural historian again and again. DORIC TEMPLES AT PAESTUM The early evolution of Doric temples is evident in two unusually well-preserved examples located in the southern Italian polis of Paestum, where a Greek colony flourished during the Archaic period. Both temples are dedicated to the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus; the Temple of Hera II, however, was built almost a century after the T emple of Hera I, the so-called Basilica (fig. 5. 10). The differences in their proportions are striking. The Temple of Hera I( on the left, fig. 5. 0) appears low and sprawling—and not just because so much of the entablature is missing—whereas the Temple of Hera II looks tall and compact. This is partly because the temple of Hera I is enneastyle (with nine columns across the front and rear), while the later temple is only hexastyle (six columns). Yet it is also the result of changes to the outline of the columns. On neither temple are the column shafts straight from bottom to top. About a third of the way up, they bulge outward slightly, receding again at about two thirds of their height. This swelling effect, known as entasis, is much stronger on the earlier Temple of Hera I.It gives the impression that the columns bulge with the strain of supporting the superstructure and that the slender tops, although aided by the widely flaring, cushionlike capitals, can barely wi thstand the crushing weight. The device adds an extraordinary vitality to the building— a sense of compressed energy waiting to be released. The Temple of Hera II is among the best preserved of all Doric temples (fig. 5. 11), and shows how the ceiling was supported in a large Doric temple. Inside the cella, the two rows of columns each support a smaller set of columns in a way that makes the tapering seem continuous despite the architrave in between.Such a two-story interior is first found at the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina around the beginning of the fifth century BCE. That temple is shown here in a reconstruction drawing (fig. 5. 12), which illustrates the structural system in detail. EARLY IONIC TEMPLES The Ionic style first appeared about a half-century after the Doric. With its vegetal decoration, it seems to have been strongly inspired by Near Eastern forms. The closest known parallel to the Ionic capital is the Aeolic capital, found in the region of Old Smyrna, in easte rn Greece, and in the northeast Aegean, itself apparently derived from North Syrian and Phoenician designs.The earliest Ionic temples were constructed in Ionian Greece, where leading cities erected vast, ornate temples in open rivalry with one another. Little survives of these early buildings. The Temple of Artemis at Ephesos gained tremendous fame in antiquity, and numbered among the seven wonders of the ancient world. The Ephesians hired Theodoros to work on its foundations in about 560 BCE, shortly after he and another architect, Rhoikos, had designed a vast temple to Hera on the island of Samos. The architects, Chersiphron of Knossos and Metagenes, his son, wrote a treatise on their building.Like the temple on Samos, the temple at Ephesos was dipteral, with two rows of columns surrounding it (fig. 5. 13). Along with the vegetal capitals, this feature emphasized the forestlike quality of the building. The Temple of Artemis was larger than Hera's temple, and it was the first monum ental building to be constructed mostly of marble. These Ionic colossi had clear symbolic value: They represented their respective city's bid for regional leadership. Stone Sculpture According to literary sources, Greeks carved very simple wooden sculptures of their gods in the eighth century BCE, but since wood deteriorates, none of them survive.Yet, in about 650 BCE, sculptors, like architects, made the transition to working in stone, and so began one of the great traditions of Greek art. The new motifs that distinguished the Orientalizing style from the Geometric had reached Greece mainly through the importation of ivory carvings and metalwork from the Near East, reflecting Egyptian influences as well. But these transportable objects do not help to explain the rise of monumental stone architecture and sculpture, which must have been based on careful, on-the-spot study of Egyptian works and the techniques used to produce them.The opportunity for just such a close study was availab le to Greek merchants living in trading camps in the western Nile delta, by permission of the Egyptian king Psammetichus I (r. 664-610 BCE). KORE AND KOUROS Early Greek statues clearly show affinities with the techniques and proportional systems used by Egyptian sculptors. Two are illustrated here, one a small female figure of about 630 BCE, probably from Crete (fig. 5. 14), the other a life-size nude male youth of about 600 BCE (fig. 5. 15), known as the New York Kouros because it is displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.Like their Egyptian forerunners (see figs. 3. 11 and 3. 12), the statues are rigidly frontal, and conceived as four distinct sides, reflecting the form of the block from which they were carved, The female statue stands with feet placed firmly together, her left arm by her side, and her right arm held up to her breast. Like Menkaure, the Greek male youth is slim and broad-shouldered; he stands with his left leg forward, and his arms by his sides, terminating i n clenched fists. His shoulders, hips, and knees are all level.Both figures have stylized, wiglike hair like their Egyptian counterparts, but there are significant differences. First, the Greek sculptures are truly free-standing, separated from the back slab that supports Egyptian stone figures. In fact, they are the earliest large stone images of the human figure in the history of art that can stand on their own. More than that, Greek sculptures incorporated ART IN TIME ca. 680 BCE—Corinthian aryballos mid-7th century BCE—Black-figured vase-painting technique develops ca. 650 BCE—Greeks establish trading posts in Egypt ca. 20 BCE—Draco codifies Athenian laws 5. 9 Doric and Ionic styles in elevation 5. 10 The Temple of Hera I (â€Å"Basilica†), ca. 550 BCE, and the Temple of Hera II (â€Å"Temple of Poseidon†), ca. 500 BCE. Paestum 5. 11 Interior, Temple of Hera II, ca. 500 BCE 5. 12 Sectional view (restored) of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina 5. 13 Restored plan of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, Turkey. ca. 560 BCE empty space (between the legs, for instance, or between arms and torso), whereas Egyptian figures remained immersed in stone, with the empty spaces between forms partly filled.Early Greek sculptures are also more stylized than their Egyptian forebears. This is most evident in the large staring eyes, emphasized by bold arching eyebrows, and in the linear treatment of the anatomy: The male youth's pectoral muscles and rib cage appear almost to have been etched onto the surface of the stone, rather than modeled like Menkaure's. Like most early Greek female sculptures, this one is draped. She wears a close-fitting garment which reveals her breasts but conceals her hips and legs; in fact, the skirt has more in common with Egyptian block statues than with Queen Khamerernebty (see fig. 3. 2). While the Greek female statue and Menkaure are clothed, the male youth is nude. These conventions reflect the fact that pub lic nudity in ancient Greece was acceptable for males, but not for females. Dozen of Archaic sculptures of this kind survive throughout the Greek world. Some were discovered in sanctuaries and cemeteries, but most were found in reused contexts, which complicates any attempt to understand their function. Scholars describe them by the Greek terms for maiden (kore, plural korai) and youth (kouros, plural kouroi). These terms gloss over the difficulty of identifying them more precisely.Some are inscribed, with the names of artists (â€Å"†So-and-so' made me†) or with dedications to various deities, chiefly Apollo. These, then, were votive offerings. But in most cases we do not know whether they represent the donor, a deity, or a person deemed divinely favored, such as a victor in athletic games. Those placed on graves may have represented the person buried beneath; yet in rare cases a kouros stands over a female burial site. No clear effort was made to individualize the sta tues as portraits, so they can represent the dead only in a general sense.It might make most sense to think of the figures as ideals of physical perfection and vitality shared by mortals and immortals alike, given meaning by their physical context. What is clear is that only the wealthy could afford to erect them, since many were well over life size and carved from high quality marble. Indeed, the very stylistic cohesion of the sculptures may reveal their social function: By erecting a sculpture of this kind, a wealthy patron declared his or her status and claimed membership in ruling elite circles. DATING AND NATURALISM The Archaic period stretches from the mid-seventh century to about 480 BCE.Within this time frame, there are few secure dates for free-standing sculptures. Scholars have therefore established a dating system based upon the level of naturalism in a given sculpture. According to this system, the more stylized the figure, the earlier it must be. Comparing figures 5. 15 and 5. 16 illustrates how this model works. An inscription on the base of the latter identifies it as a funerary statue of Kroisos, who had died a hero's death in battle. Like all such figures, it was painted, and traces of color can still be seen in the hair and the pupils of the eyes.Instead of the sharp planes and linear treatment of the New York Kouros (fig. 5. 15), the sculptor of the kouros from Anavysos modeled its anatomy with swelling curves: looking at it, a viewer can imagine flesh and sinew and bones in the carved stone. A greater plasticity gives the impression that the body could actually function. The proportions of the facial features are more naturalistic as well. In general, the face has a less masklike quality than the New York Kouros, though the lips are still drawn up in an artificial smile, known as the Archaic smile, that is not reflected in the eyes.Based on these differences, scholars judge the Anavysos Kouros more â€Å"advanced† than the New York K ouros, and date it some 75 years later. Given the later trajectory of Greek sculpture, there is every reason to believe that this way of dating Archaic sculpture is more or less accurate (accounting for regional differences and the like). All the same, it is worth emphasizing that it is based on an assumption—that sculptors, or their patrons, were striving toward naturalism—rather than on factual data. The kore type appears to follow, a similar pattern of development to the kouros.With her blocklike form and strongly accented waist, for instance, the kore of figure 5. 17 seems a direct descendant of the kore in figure 5. 14. On account of her heavy woolen garment (or peplos), she is known as the Peplos Kore. The left hand, which once extended forward to offer a votive gift, must have given the statue a spatial quality quite different from that of the earlier kore figure. Equally new is the more organic treatment of the hair, which falls over the shoulders in soft, curl y strands, in contrast to the stiff wig in figure 5. 14.The face is fuller, rounder, and the smile gentler and more natural than any we have seen so far, moving from the mouth into the cheeks. Scholars therefore place this statue a full century later than the work shown in figure 5. 14. All the same, there is more variation in types of kore than in types of kouros. This is partly because a kore is a clothed figure and therefore presents the problem of how to relate body and drapery. It is also likely to reflect changing habits or local styles of dress. The kore of figure 5. 18, from about a decade later than the Peplos Kore, has none of the latter's severity.Both were found on the Akropolis of Athens, but she probably came from Chios, and island of Ionian Greece. Unlike the korai discussed so far, this kore wears the light Ionian chiton under the heavier diagonally-shaped kimation, which replaced the peplos in fashion. The layers of the garment still loop around the body in soft cur ves, but the play of richly differentiated folds, pleats, and textures has almost become an end in itself. Color played an important role in such works, and it is fortunate that so much of it survives in this example. Architectural Sculpture: The Building Comes AliveSoon after the Greeks began to build temples in stone, they also started to decorate them with architectural sculpture. Indeed, early Greek architects such as Theodoros of Samos were often sculptors as well, and sculpture played an important role in helping to articulate architecture and to bring it to life. Traces of pigment show that these sculptures were normally vividly painted—an image that is startlingly at odds with our conception of ancient sculpture as pristine white marble. The Egyptians had been covering walls and columns with reliefs since the Old Kingdom.Their carvings were so shallow (for example, see fig. 3. 29) that they did not break the continuity of the surface and had no weight or volume of the ir own. Thus they were related to their architectural setting in the same sense as wall paintings. This is also true of the reliefs on Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian buildings (for example, see figs. 2. 21 and 2. 22). the Near East, however, there was another kind of architectural sculpture, which seems to have begun with the Hittites: the guardian monsters protuding from the blocks that framed the gateways of fortresses or palaces (see fig. . 23). This tradition may have inspired, directly, or indirectly, the carving over the Lion Gate of Mycenae (see fig. 4. 22). THE TEMPLE OF ARTEMIS, CORFU That the Lion Gate relief is, conceptually, an ancestor of later Greek architectural sculpture is clear when one considers the facade of the early Archaic Temple of Artemis on the island of Corfu, built soon after 600 BCE (figs. 5. 19 and 5. 20). There, sculpture is confined to a triangle between the ceiling and the roof, known as the pediment. This area serves as a screen, protecting the w ooden rafters behind it from moisture.The pedimental sculpture is displayed against this screen. Technically, these carvings are in high relief, like the guardian lionesses at Mycenae. However, the bodies are so strongly undercut that they are nearly detached from the background, and appear to be almost independent of their architectural setting. Indeed, the head of the central figure actually overlaps the frame; she seems to emerge out of the pediment toward a viewer. This choice on the sculptor's part heightens the impact of the figure and strengthens her function.Although the temple was dedicated to Artemis, the figure represents the snake-haired Medusa, one of the Gorgon sisters of Greek mythology. Medusa's appearance was so monstrous, so the story went, that anyone who beheld her would turn to stone. With the aid of the gods, Perseus beheaded her, guiding his sword by looking at her reflection in his shield. 5. 14 Kore (Maiden). ca. 630 BCE. Limestone. Height 24 1/2† (62. 3 cm). Musee du Louvre, Paris 5. 15 Kouros (Youth), ca. 600-590 BCE. Marble. Height 6'1 1/2† (1. 88 m). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 5. 16 Kroisos (Kouros from Anavysos). ca. 540-525 BCE.Marble. Height 6'4† (1. 9 m). National Museum, Athens 5. 17 Kore in Dorian Peplos, known as Peplos Kore, ca. 530 BCE. Marble. Height 48† (122 cm). Akropolis Museum, Athens 5. 18 Kore, from Chios (? ). ca. 520 BCE, Marble. Height 21 7/8† (55. 3). Akropolis Museum, Athens 5. 19 Central Portion of the west pediment of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu, Greece, ca. 600-580 BCE. Limestone. Height 9'2†. (2. 8 m). Archaeological Museum, Corfu, Greece Traditionally, Medusa has been thought of as a protective visual device, but recent approaches argue that she served as a visual commentary on the power of the divinity.She is conceived as a mistress of animals exemplifying the goddess' power and her dominance over Nature. Two large feline creatures flank Medusa, in a he raldic arrangement known from the Lion Gate at Mycenae, and from many earlier Near Eastern examples. To strengthen the sculptures' message, the artist included narrative elements in the pediment as well. In the spaces between and behind the main group, the sculptor inserted a number of subsidiary figures. On either side of Medusa are her children, the winged horse Pegasus, and Chrysaor, who will be born from drops of her blood, shed when Perseus decapitates her.Logically speaking, they cannot yet exist, since Medusa's head is still on her shoulders; and yet their presence in the heraldic arrangement alludes to the future, when Perseus will have claimed the Gorgon's power as his own—just as the sculptor has here, in the service of Artemis. The sculptor has fused two separate moments from a single story, in what is known as a synoptic narrative, bringing the story to life. Two additional groups filled the pediment's corners, possibly depicting Zeus and Poseidon battling the gia nts (a gigantomachy), a moral race who tried to overthrow the gods.Like the central figures, they strike a cautionary note, since the gods destroyed them for their overreaching ambitions. With their reclining pose, the felines fit the shape of the pediment comfortably. Yet in order to fit Pegasus and Chrysaor between Medusa and the felines, and the groups into the corners, the sculptor carved them at a significantly smaller scale than the dominant figures. Later solutions to the pediment's awkward shape suggest that this one, which lacks unity of scale, was not wholly satisfactory.Aside from filling the pediment, Greeks might affix free-standing figures, known as acroteria (often of terra cotta) above the corners and the center of the pediment, softening the severity of its outline (see fig. 5. 21). Greek sculptors also decorate the frieze. In Doric temples, such as at Corfu, where the frieze consists of triglyphs and metopes, they would often decorate the latter with figural scenes . In Ionic temples, the frieze was a continuous band of painted or sculpted decoration.Moreover, in Ionic buildings, female statues or caryatids might substitute for columns to support the roof of a porch, adding a further decorative quality (see figs. 5. 21 and 5. 53). THE SIPHNIAN TREASURY, DELPHI These Ionic features came together in a treasury built at Delphi shortly before 525 BCE by the people of the Ionian island of Siphnos. Treasuries were like miniature temples, used for storing votive gifts; typically, they had an ornate quality. Although the Treasury of the Siphnians no longer stands, archeologists have been able to create a reconstruction from what survives (figs. . 21 and 5. 22). Supporting the architrave of the porch were two caryatids. Above the architrave is a magnificent sculptural frieze. The detail shown here (fig. 5. 22) depicts part of the mythical battle of the Greek gods against the giants, who had challenged divine authority. At the far left, the two lions wh o pull the chariot of the mother goddess Cybele tear apart an anguished giant. In front of them, Apollo and Artemis advance together, shooting arrows into a phalanx of giants. Their weapons were once added to the sculpture in metal.Stripped of his armor, a dead giant lies at their feet. As in the Corfu pediment, the tale is a cautionary one, warning mortals not to aim higher than their natural place in the order of things. Though the subject is mythical, its depiction offers a wealth of detail on contemporary weaponry and military tactics. Astonishingly, the relief is only a few inches deep from front to back. Within that shallow space, the sculptors (more than one hand is discernible) created several planes. The arms and legs of those nearest a viewer are carved in the round.In the second and third layers, the forms become shallower, yet even those farthest from a viewer do not merge into the background. The resulting relationships between figures give a dramatic sense of the turmo il of battle and an intensity of action not seen before in narrative reliefs. As at Corfu, the protagonists fill the sculptural field from top to bottom, enhancing the frieze's power. This is a dominant characteristic of Archaic and Classical Greek art, and with time, sculptors executing pedimental sculpture sought new ways to fill the field while retaining a unity of scale.Taking their cue, perhaps, from friezes such as that found on the Siphnian Treasury, they introduced a variety of poses, and made great strides in depicting the human body in naturalistic motion. This is well illustrated in the pediments of the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina, an island in the Saronic Gulf visible from Attica (see fig. 5. 12). PEDIMENTS OF THE TEMPLE OF APHAIA AT AEGINA. The temple of Aphaia's original east pediment was probably destroyed by the Persians when they took the island in 490 BCE. The Aeginetans commissioned the present one (fig. 5. 3) after defeating the Persians at the battle of Salamis i n 480 BCE. It depicts the first sack of Troy, by Herakles and Telamon, king of Salamis. The west pediment, which dates from about 510-500 BCE, depicts the second siege of Troy (recounted in The Iliad) by Agamemnon, who was related to Herakles. The pairing of subjects commemorates the important role played by the heroes of Aegina in both battles—and, by extension, at Salamis, where their navy helped win the day. The elevation of historical events to a universal plane through allegory was typical of Greek art.The figures of both pediments are fully in the round, independent of the background that they decorate. Those of the east pediment were found in pieces on the ground. Scholars continue to debate their exact arrangement, but the relative position of each figure within the pediment can be determined with reasonable accuracy. Since the designer introduced a wide range of action poses for the figures, their height, but not their scale, varies to suit the gently sloping sides o f the pedimental field (fig. 5. 23). These variances in height can be used to determine the figures' original positions.In the center stands the goddess Athena, presiding over the battle between Greeks and Trojans that rages on either side of her. Kneeling archers shoot across the pediment to unite its action. The symmetrical arrangement of the poses on the two halves of the pediment creates a balanced design, so that while each figure has a clear autonomy, it also exists within a governing ornamental pattern. If we compare a fallen warrior from the west pediment (fig. 5. 24) with its counterpart from the later east pediment (fig. 5. 25) we see some indication of the extraordinary advances sculptors made toward naturalism during the decades that separate them.As they sink to the ground in death, both figures present a clever solution to filling the awkward corner space. Yet while the earlier figure props himself up on one arm, only a precariously balance shield supports the later wa rrior, whose full weight seems to pull him irresistibly to the ground. Both sculptors aimed to contort the dying warrior's body in the agonies of his death: The earlier sculptor crosses the warrior's legs in an awkward pose, while the later sculptor more convincingly twists the body from the waist, so that the left shoulder moves into a new plane.Although the later warrior's anatomy still does not fully respond to his pose (note, for instance, how little the pectorals stretch to accommodate the strenuous motion of the right arm), his body is more modeled and organic than the earlier warrior's. He also breaks from the head-on stare of his predecessor, turning his gaze to the ground that confronts him. The effect suggests introspection: The inscrutable smiling mask of the earlier warrior yields to the suffering and emotion of a warrior in his final moments. Vase Painting: Art of the SymposiumIn vase painting, the new Archaic style would replace the Orientalizing phase as workshops in Athens and other centers produced extremely fine wares, painted with scenes from mythology, legend, and everyday life. The vases illustrated in these pages were used to hold wine, but were not meant for everyday use. The Greeks generally poured their wine from plainer, unadorned vases. Decorated vases were reserved for important occasions, like the symposium (symposion), an exclusive drinking party for men and courtesans; wives and other respectable citizen women were not included.Participants reclined on couches around the edges of a room, and a master of ceremonies filled their cups from a large painted mixing bowl (a krater) in the middle of the room. Music, poetry, storytelling, and word games accompanied the festivities. Often the event ended in lovemaking, which is frequently depicted on drinking cups. Yet there was also a serious side to symposia, as described by Plato and Xenophon, 5. 20 Reconstruction drawing of the west front of the Temple of Artemis at Corfu (after Rodenw aldt) 5. 21 Reconstruction drawing of the Treasury of the Siphnians.Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, ca. 525 BCE 5. 22 Battle of the Gods and Giants, from the north frieze of the Treasury of the Siphnians, Delphi. ca. 530 BCE. Marble. Height 26† (66 cm). Archaeological Museum, Delphi 5. 23 Reconstruction drawing of the east pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina (after Ohly) 5. 24 Dying Warrior, from the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, ca. 500-490 BCE. Marble. Length 5†² 2 1/2† (1. 59 m). Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich 5. 24 Dying Warrior, from the west pediment of the Temple of Aphaia, ca. 500-490 BCE. Marble. Length 5†² 2 1/2† (1. 9 m). Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich centering on debates about politics, ethics, and morality. The great issues that the Greeks pondered in their philosophy, literature, and theater—the nature of virtue, the value of an individual man's life, or mortal relations with the gods, to name a few—were mirrored in, and prompted by, the images with which they surrounded themselves. After the middle of the sixth century BCE, many of the finest vessels bear signatures of the artists who made them, indicating the pride that potters and painters alike took in their work.In many cases, vase painters had such distinctive styles that scholars can recognize their work even without a signature, and modern names are used to identify them. Dozens of vases (in one instance, over 200) might survive by the same hand, allowing scholars to trace a single painter's development over many years. The difference between Orientalizing and Archaic vase painting is largely one of technique. On the aryballos from Corinth (see fig. 5. 5), the figures appear partly as solid silhouettes, partly in outline, or as a combination of the two.Toward the end of the seventh century BCE, influenced by Corinthian products, Attic vase painters began to work in the black-figured technique : The entire design was painted in black silhouette against the reddish clay; and then the internal details were incised into the design with a needle. Then, white and purple were painted over the black to make chosen areas stand out. The technique lent itself to a two-dimensional and highly decorative effect. This development marks the beginning of an aggressive export industry, the main consumers of which were the Etruscans.Vast numbers of black-figured vases were found in Etruscan tombs. Thus, although in terms of conception these vases (and later red-figured vessels) represent a major chapter in Greek (and specifically Athenian) art, if we think about their actual use, painted vases can be considered a major component of Etruscan culture, both visual and funerary. A fine example of the black-figured technique is an Athenian amphora signed by Exekias as both potter and painter, dating to the third quarter of the sixth century BCE (fig. 5. 26). The painting shows the Homeric heroe s Achilles and Ajax playing dice.The episode does not exist in surviving literary sources, and its appearance here points to the wide field of traditions that inspired Exekias. The two figures lean on their spears; their shields are stacked behind them against the inside of a campaign tent. The black silhouettes create a rhythmical composition, symmetrical around the table in the center. Within the black paint, Exekias has incised a wealth of detail, focusing especially upon the cloaks of the warriors; their intricately woven texture contrasts with the lustrous blackness of their weapons. The extraordinary power of this scene derives from the tension within it.The warriors have stolen a moment of relaxation during a fierce war; even so, poised on the edge of their stools, one heel raised as if to jump at any moment, their poses are edgy. An inscription in front of Ajax, on the right, reads â€Å"three†, as if he is calling out his throw. Achilles, who in his helmet slightly d ominates the scene, answers with â€Å"four,† making him the winner. Yet many a Greek viewer would have understood the irony of the scene, for when they return to battle, Achilles will die, and Ajax will be left to bear his friend's lifeless body back to the Greek camp, before falling on his own sword in despair.Indeed, Exekias himself would paint representations of the heroes' tragic deaths. This amphora is the first known representation of the gaming scene, which subsequently became very popular, suggesting that individual vase painting did not exist in artistic isolation; painters responded to one another's work in a close and often clever dialogue. Despite its decorative potential, the silhouettelike black-figured technique limited the artist to incision for detail. Toward the end of the sixth century BCE, painters developed the reverse procedure, leaving the figures red and filling in the background.This red-figured technique gradually replaced the older method betwee 52 0 and 500 BCE. The effects of the change would be felt increasingly in the decades to come, but they are already discernible on an amphora of about 510-500 BCE, signed by Euthymides (fig. 5. 27). No longer is the scene so dependent on profiles. The painter's new freedom with the brush translates into a freedom of movement in the dancing revelers he represents. They cavort in a range of poses, twisting their bodies and showing off Euthymides' confidence in rendering human anatomy.The shoulder blades of the central figure, for instance, are not level, but instead reflect the motion of his raised arm. The turning poses allow Euthymides to tackle foreshortening, as he portrays the different planes of the body (the turning shoulders, for instance) on a single surface. This was an age of intensive and self-conscious experimentation; indeed, so pleased was Euthymides with his painting that he inscribed it with a taunting challenge to a fellow painter, â€Å"As never Euphronios†.On a slightly later kylix (wine cup) by Douris, dating to 490-480 BCE, Eos, the goddess of dawn, tenderly lifts a limp body of her dead son. Memnon, whom Achilles killed after their mothers sought the intervention of Zeus (fig. 5. 28). Douris traces the contours of limbs beneath the drapery, and balances vigorous outlines with more delicate secondary strokes, such as those indicating the anatomical details of Memnon's body contrasts with the lift of Eos' wings, an ironic commentary, perhaps, on how Zeus decided between the two warriors by weighing their souls on a scale that tipped against Memnon.After killing him, Achilles stripped off Memnon's armor as a gesture of humiliation, and where the figures overlap in the image, the gentle folds of Eos' flowing chiton set off Memnon's nudity. His vulnerability in turn underlines his mother's desperate grief at being unable to help her son. At the core of the image is raw emotion. Douris tenderly exposes the suffering caused by intrasigent fat e, and the callousness of the gods who intervene in mortal lives. As we saw on the pediment from Aegina, depictions of suffering, and how humans respond to it, are among the most dramatic developments of late Archaic art.In this mythological scene, Athenians may have seen a reflection of themselves during the horrors of the Persian Wars. Indeed, the vase is brought into the realm of everyday life by its inscription, with the signatures of both painter and potter, as well as a dedication typical of Greek vases: â€Å"Hermogenes is beautiful. † THE CLASSICAL AGE The beginning of the fifth century BCE brought crisis. A number of Ionian cities rebelled against their Persian overlords.